UMASS/AMHERST 



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LIBRARY 



OF THE 




MASSACHUSETTS 

AGRICULTURAL 

COLLEGE 



SOURCE 



487 
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1901 



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Q-i'UAs^ 




UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS 



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Edited by L. H. Bailey 



FARM POULTRY 



^fje iSural Science ^tvk^ 

The Soil. 

The Spraying of Plants. 

Milk and Its Products. 

The Fertility of the Land. 

The Principles of Fruit Growing. 

Bush-Fruits. 

Fertilizers. 

The Principles of Agriculture. 

Rural Wealth and Welfare. 

The Farmstead. 

The Principles of Vegetable-Gardening. 

Farm Poultry. 

The Feeding of Animals. 

The Farmer's Business Handbook. 

Irrigation and Drainage. 

The Care of Animals. 

The Horse. 

How to Choose a Farm. 

Forage Crops. 

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life. 

The Nursery-Book. 

Plant-Breeding. 

The Forcing-Book. 

Garden-Making. 

The Pruning-Book. 

The Practical Garden-Book. 



FARM POULTRY 



A POPULAR SKETCH OF DOMESTIC FOWLS 
FOR THE FARMER AND AMATEUR 



BY 

GEORGE C. WATSON, M.S. 

Professor of Agriculture in the Pennsylvania Stale College 



EIGHTH EDITION 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., Ltd. 

1909 

All riuhU reserved 



Copyright, 1901 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY 



Set up and electrotyped June, 1901 

Reprinted February. 1903: February. 1904; July, 1905; 

November, 1906; October. 1907; January, 1909; 

July, 1909 



^ount ©leacant IPtesja 

J. Horace McFarland Company 
Harrisburg • Pennsylvania 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

PAGES 

Poultry- Raising as a Business 1-11 

Extent of business 2 

Capital and land required 5 

A variety of products 9 

Products easy to market 10 

CHAPTER II 

Egg Breeds of the Domestic Hen 12-38 

Classification as to utility 12 » 

General characteristics of egg breeds 15 

Leghorn 23 

Minorca 31 

Andalusian 33 

Spanish 34 

Hamburg 35 

Red Cap 38 

CHAPTER III 

Meat Breeds 39-53 

General characteristics 39 

Brahma 45 

Cochin 49 

Langshan 51 

Faverolle 52 



32554 



vi Contents 

CHAPTER IV 

PAGES 

General- Purpose Fowls 54-73 

General characteristics 54 

Plymouth Rock 59 

"Wyandotte 63 

Java 66 

Dominique 67 

Dorking . 67 

Houdan 70 

Indian Game 70 

Rhode Island Red 72 

CHAPTER V 

, Fancy Breeds 74-81 

Polish 75 

Game 77 

Silky . 78 

Sultan 79 

Frizzle ' . . . . 79 

Rumpless • . . 80 

Bantam 81 

CHAPTER VI 

Buildings for Fowls : Location, Plans and Con- 
struction 82-111 

Location of buildings 82 

Construction of houses 90 

Size of building . . . , , 94 



Contents vii 

CHAPTER VII 

PAGES 

Buildings: Internal Arrangements and Yards . . . 112-130 

Construction of perches 112 

Nests 115 

Drinking fountains 119 

Yards and parks 124 



CHAPTER VIII 

Improvement and Breeding of Fowls 131-157 

Selection 131 

Selecting eggs 133 

Heredity 140 

Variation 141 

In- and -in -breeding 144 

Cross-breeding 147 

Improvement of common fowls 153 



CHAPTER IX 

Feeding for Eggs and for Meat 158-186 

Exercise » 159 

Quality of food 160 

Forced feeding for eggs 160 

Grain food 162 

Green food 365 

Meat food 168 

Feeding for meat or fattening 181 



viii Contents 

CHAPTER X 

PAGES 

Incubators and Brooders . 187-207 

Artificial incubation . . 189 

Selection of an incubator 191 

Care of incubators 196 

Brooders and brooder houses , 198 

Home-made brooders 205 

CHAPTER XI 

Feeding and Care of Little Chickens . .' 208-221 

Food 209 

Exercise 213 

Feeding troughs 215 

Drinking fountains 217 

Brooders 218 

CHAPTER XII 

Capons and Broilers 222-236 

Capon rearing 222 

Preparing capons for market 231 

Broilers 232 

CHAPTER XIII 

Ducks and Geese 237-260 

Ducks; General discussion 237 

Pekin = 241 

Aylesbury . 242 

Rouen 243 

Black Cayuga 244 



Contents ix 

PAGES 

Ducks: Food and care 245 

Geese: General discussion 250 

Toulouse 252 

Embden 254 

African 255 

Chinese 256 

Geese: Food and care 257 



CHAPTER XIV 

Turkeys, Guineas, Pea-fowls, Pigeons 261-281 

Turkeys: General discussion 261 

Bronze 267 

Narragansett 268 

White Holland 268 

Buff 269 

Slate 269 

Black , 269 

Turkeys : General care 270 

Guineas 274 

Pea-fowls 276 

Pigeons 277 

CHAPTER XV 

Preparing and Marketing Poultry Products .... 282-307 

Dressing poultry ... 283 

Packing and shipping 289 

Shipping live poultry 297 

Handling and shipping eggs 299 

Preserving eggs 302 



X Contents 

CHAPTER XVI 

PAGES 

Diseases and Enemies 308-329 

Lice 308 

Mites 312 

Gapes 313 

Soup » . 316 

Cholera = 320 

Ottier diseases 323 

Enemies 327 

APPENDIX 

Important Poultry Publications o « . . . 331 



FARM POULTRY 



CHAPTER I 
POULTRY -RAISING AS A BUSINESS 

Now that the extent and importance of the 
poultry industry is recognized by every one, and 
particularly by those who have made the subject 
a study, it is not necessary, in this connection, 
to enter into an extended discussion of the pres- 
ent or possible usefulness of domesticated fowls. 
It may be of interest, however, to note some of 
the difficulties which hinder, if they do not en- 
tirely prevent, the compilation of accurate statis- 
tics of the value of the poultry and poultry 
products of the United States. 

When one attempts to compare poultry-raising 
with other agricultural industries he is confronted 
with more or less inaccurate data. Many, at first 
thought, place the value of this industry far below^ 
its true worth, and it will require but a moment's 
reflection to understand why this is so. Both 
the rural and suburban population look to the 
domestic fowls for a little help each day in pro- 
viding the table with wholesome and palatable 

A (1) 



2 Farm Poultry 

food. So general is the consumption of fowls and 
of poultry products that some of them are found 
among the constituents of almost every well-pre- 
pared meal. As a large proportion of the poul- 
try products go directly to supply the daily wants 
of the -producers' families, it is impossible to as- 
certain with any degree of accuracy the amount 
thus consumed. Very few records are kept by 
the producer^ of either the fowls or eggs thus 
consumed, and whenever statements are made for 
the census-taker or others, the aggrf;gate is much 
more likely to be underestimated than t^agger- 
ated. Consequently published data are likely to 
be more or less misleading, and to give far too 
low a value to the industry. 

The United States Census Eeport for 1890 
gives the number of fowls and eggs produced 
"on farms only" as fo 'ows: 

Chickens 258,871,125 

Turkeys 10,758,060 

Geese 8,440,175 

Ducks '7,544,^80 

Dozens of eggs ^t>^,722,916 

If the value of the chickens be estimated at 
forty cents, the turkeys and geese at sixty cents 
and the ducks at forty-five cents each, the total 
amount of the three will equal $118,1:59,824.^ If 
to this is added an estimated value of the eggs at 
fifteen cents per dozen, which is more than three 



Value of Products 3 

3nts per dozen below the average price in New 
York city for fresh eggs, the total will equal 
$241,418,660, which is considerably more than 
the total value of the coal, iron, and mineral oil 
produced in the United States for the same 
period. As these estimates apply only to the 
products of farms and do not include the poul- 
try products of villages and cities, it will be seen 
thai the total value of the whole product of the 
country must far exceed the moderate estimates 
given above. 

LITTLE CAPITAL KEQUIRED 

To a person contemplating a new enterprise or 
the extension oi a business already established, 
one of the first questions to be solved is "What 
will it cost?" It often happens that the original or 
first cost of an enterprise, prevents persons of 
mov /^ate resources from making what in their 
judgment would be a safe investment. Probably 
there is no important branch of animal industry 
that requires so little outlay in labor and money 
as poultry-keeping. Unlike many enterprises, the 
poultry business may be begun in a small way 
and conducted successfully with the expenditure 
of a very meager sum of money. In breeding 
other kinds of pure-bred farm stock the first 
cost necessarily must be considerable, particu- 



4 Farm Poultry 

larly if worthy animals are used for foundation 
stock. 

A small beginning, which is often desirable in 
order to give the preliminary training necessary 
to final success, may be made with the resources 
of an ordinary farm. This modest beginning 
would not in any way interfere with the develop- 
ment or extension of the business should cir- 
cumstances and experience warrant such a course. 
In this respect the poultry business furnishes a 
marked contrast to some other lines of work, 
particularly to those that require tools and ma- 
chinery to place a finished product upon the 
market. If the business be largely increased, 
new and larger machines must be obtained in 
order to produce with the greatest economy, and 
consequently a sacrifice must be made in the 
equipment of the original small plant. 

To those about to make their first attempt in 
poultry -keeping on an extensive scale, it may be 
said that one of the safest ways, if not the only 
sure way to success, is to start in a moderate way 
and to delay long enough to learn the business 
thoroughly before much is invested. Mistakes 
will certainly be made and difficult problems will 
present themselves for solution before success can 
be attained in any extended way. Many have 
made the experiment of investing considerable 
money and labor before the business was even 



Causes of Failure 5 

fairly well understood, and failure, or discour- 
agement — which often amounts to the same 
thing — has been the consequent result. 

While failures due solely to inexperience are 
in evidence most of the time, yet new recruits 
are continually rushing forward to repeat the dis- 
aster. This is without doubt due largely to the 
desire on the part of many to accumulate money 
rapidly and before they have time to pass through 
the important apprenticeship of learning the busi- 
ness. Undoubtedly many are tempted to go into 
the poultry business on a somewhat extensive 
scale because a few fowls are kept on many farms 
seemingly with profit, and yet without much 
care. The small flocks that have the run of 
the farm may thrive with little care, but large 
colonies demand close attention from one who has 
passed the stage of a novice, if the greatest suc- 
cess is to be attained. 

COMPARATIVELY LITTLE LAND NECESSARY 

Unless it is desirable to raise all, or nearly all, 
of the grain which the fowls require, on the same 
farms on which they are kept, comparatively lit- 
tle land will be required. Especially is this true 
with ducks and chickens. Turkeys, on account 
of their roving nature, do best when given a wide 
range. Laying hens, however, will do well when 



6 Farm Poultry 

confined in a comparatively small yard or "rmi" 
if the ground is kept clean by cultivation. Four 
or five acres will afford ample space for eight 
hundred hens if suitable arrangements are made 
to keep them in moderately small flocks. This 
amount of landivill also provide ample space for 
the rearing of the young required for the mainte- 
nance of the flock. If the grain food be pur- 
chased, very little land will be necessary, — only 
enough for the houses, yards and sufficient space 
whereon to grow the green or succulent food. A 
very small area will be sufficient on which to raise 
the green food if the land be kept in a high state 
of fertility. It is true that in some parts of 
the year it will be advantageous to have a wide 
range, if one can be provided. 

Fowls, like other classes of live stock, require 
more exercise while they are growing and devel- 
oping, and do best in a large run or park, as 
so much depends on a strong body and constitu- 
tion when the period of greatest usefulness is 
reached. It is of relatively more importance, 
therefore, to have a large run for the young and 
immature fowls than for the mature birds, which 
latter are being maintained solely for the pro- 
duction of eggs. Fattening fowls require com- 
paratively little exercise, their health is not mate- 
rially impaired by a short confinement, and more 
rapid gain in weight is secured by confining them. 



Quick Profits 7 

QUICK RETUKNS FEOM MONEY INVESTED 

Of the various branches of animal industry 
there is probably none that brings such quick 
returns as poultry - keeping. It matters not 
whether the poultry-raiser desires to produce 
eggs, meat in the form of broilers, mature fowls, 
or capons, the product is ready for market within 
a comparatively short time. Even though the 
slowest method be pursued,— that of selecting 
eggs for hatching, from which are to be reared 
,the fowls to produce eggs, — there should be no 
difficulty in producing for the market in from 
five to eight months. 

With other classes of live stock, not only is 
a much longer time required in which to secure 
returns, but also a greater money outlay at the 
beginning. The fact that so little time is required 
for the development of a paying business makes 
poultry-keeping an attractive field for those 
having little capital, and who must enter some 
business that will bring quick returns. 

MAY BE CONDUCTED BY PERSONS OF EITHER SEX 

The fact that the poultry business requires lit- 
tle land, few and inexpensive buildings and no 
heavy and complicated machinery, makes it well 
suited to persons of either sex who are unable 



8 Farm Poultry 

physically, or who do not desire, to perform 
heavy manual labor or any work that requires 
the outlay of considerable effort and strength. 

Those who desire to work more or less out of 
doors, and who are willing to attend regularly to 
details, may find congenial employment and may 
undertake to perform the necessary operations of 
poultry-keeping without the feeling that they are 
starting in a business for which they are not 
fitted. It will frequently be noticed that success 
in business is attained by those who for various 
reasons are more or less unfitted for the work 
which they have undertaken, and who conse- 
quently achieve success through great persever- 
ance alone and in the face of greater difficulties 
than their competitors experience. 

Many people of means and refined tastes have 
profitably taken up the study and occupation of 
poultry-keeping as a means of affording health- 
ful out-of-door exercise, in order to regain failing 
health or to afford a change and rest from pro- 
fessional activity. Many women have become 
expert breeders, or producers of various poultry 
products and are recognized as authorities in their 
respective lines of work. There is no branch of 
animal industry that offers so many inducements 
to women as some of the various branches of 
poultry- keeping, particularly if they desire to 
experiment in the production of new forms. 



Choice of Product 9 

A GREAT VARIETY OF PRODUCTS 

Quite unlike other lines of live-stock work, in 
which only a few products are raised on the farm 
ready for the market, poultry-keeping fortunately 
offers to the poultryman and farmer an oppor- 
tunity to choose from a number of marketable 
products those which he prefers to provide or 
which in his judgment will most likely bring 
pleasure or financial success. It is noticed that 
circumstances are often such that certain lines 
of poultry work can be conducted with greater 
success than others, so that those who study 
closely their own adaptabilities are enabled to 
select at the outset the line of work that is likely 
to prove the most satisfactory. 

To carry out this idea somewhat further by 
means of an illustration, it will readily be seen 
that if a poultryman had a somewhat limited 
space for fowls, including both buildings and 
yards, so that it would be quite impossible to 
keep to advantage more than a few hundred at 
most, he should either devote his energy to the 
production of fowls of high merit for breeding 
purposes or confine himself to ^^^ production. 
The rearing of young fowls for market demands 
more space both in and out of doors than a 
business of the same magnitude in which egg 
production is the chief object. The various 



10 Farm Poultry 

classes of domestic hen, with turkeys, ducks, 
geese, and pigeons, furnish a great variety of 
products that find ready sale in the markets. 
From these the farmer or poultryman may select 
those that offer to him the greatest special induce- 
ments. 

PRODUCTS EASY TO MARKET 

With the modern facilities for rapid transpor- 
tation, the various poultry products may be sent 
to market hundreds of miles distant and be 
placed before the consumer in excellent condi- 
tion. Eggs only a few days old may be served 
as food after being shipped hundreds of miles 
by express. 

While the best products may be sent long dis- 
tances by express with profit, the poorer ones 
seldom pay for the extra cost of rapid transit. 
Superior products create new demands. Since 
more attention is now paid to poultry -raising in 
this country than was given to the industry but a 
few years ago, many highly prized special articles 
have been produced which find a ready market 
at remunerative prices in nearly all of the large 
cities. As better products are placed on the 
market, and as people of means become aware 
of this fact, the demand for a good article soon 
becomes as strong and constant as that for the 



Skill and Profit 11 

cheaper and more staple articles. As soon as 
a worthy article is produced regularly, customers 
are ready to purchase. The best on the market 
is usually sold first. Better work with poultry 
will eventually insure better products, which find 
ready sales and, in turn, create hew demands. 
It should be the aim of each person who is about 
to enter the poultry business, to produce the best 
which the market affords. The greatest skill is 
required to furnish the best, but articles which 
are produced with great skill and a thorough 
knowledge of the business, usually yield the 
greatest profits. 



CHAPTER II 

EGa BREEDS OF THE DOMESTIC HEN 

Agriculturists may, for convenience, classify 
fowls as to their useful qualities as — 

Egg Breeds, General-Purpose Breeds, 

Meat Breeds, Fancy Breeds. 

While this classification gives considerable 
information, in a general way, yet it should not 
be inferred that the distinctions between these 
classes are constant or very pronounced. In 
other words, a classification that is based on 
utility does not make use of positive character- 
istics. The distinctions are relative and therefore 
quite variable, as the usefulness of any breed will 
depend to a large extent upon various conditions, 
as food, care, climate, etc. Again, the so-called 
general -purpose fowls form a connecting link be- 
tween those which are most highly esteemed as 
egg-producers and the heavy, clumsy Asiatic fowls, 
whose most useful quality is the production of 
large bodies that are highly valued for table use. 
From the nature of the classification and the varia- 
tion of the fowls from the standpoint of usefulness, 

(12) 



Classification 13 

it will readily be seen that different breeders may 
honestly differ as to the exact position of certain 
breeds. 

To further illustrate, what would be recognized 
as a meat breed by one breeder might by another 
be placed among the general -purpose fowls on 
account of its good laying qualities. As we find 
all grades of domesticated cattle, from the heavy 
strictly beef type on the one hand, whose useful- 
ness lies in meat production alone, to the dairy cow 
on the other hand, whose tendency toward milk 
production is so strong that she can with difficulty 
be induced to lay on enough flesh to look well, so 
do we find many intermediate grades of fowls, 
from the large, massive form noted for the pro- 
duction of flesh to the small nervous fowl so 
famed for egg production. The inexperienced 
person will find more or less confusion on account 
of this faulty classification, and mistakes are to 
be expected, and these will be corrected only by 
study and observation. 

As these terms are current and are likely to 
be used in the future, a brief discussion of them 
may aid in arriving at a better understanding of» 
the points at issue. 

The egg breeds include all the small or medium- 
sized fowls that have a strong tendency toward egg 
production. They are generally poor sitters, at 
least while young, of a nervous temperament, being 



14 Farm Poultry 

easily frightened, and more readily take to flight 
than do the other breeds that are noted for utility. 
The Leghorns, Spanish, Minorcas, and Hamburgs 
are good representatives of this class. 

The meat breeds are larger than the egg or 
the general -purpose breeds. The largest breeds 
of fowls are represented in this class. They are 
generally considered to be poor layers except, pos- 
sibly, in a few cases where the pullets are fairly 
good layers. They are heavy-bodied, slow-moving 
fowls, of gentle disposition, and are persistent 
sitters. The Brahmas, Cochins, and Langshans 
are representative breeds of this class. 

The general-purpose breeds, as the term indi- 
cates, include those fowls that are of fair size and 
furnish a good quality of meat when it is properly 
prepared. They will also produce a good quantity 
of eggs when kept under favorable conditions for 
egg production. The Plymouth Rocks and Wyan- 
dottes are familiar breeds of this class. 

The fancy breeds include those fowls that are 
reared on account of their peculiar or pleasing ap- 
pearance, and are not bred exclusively for utility. 
While many of the so-called fancy breeds may 
serve a useful purpose in furnishing eggs and 
meat, they cannot successfully compete with other 
classes when usefulness alone is considered. The 
Polish and Bantams may be taken as familiar 
representatives . 



Egg Breeds Described 15 

GENEKAL CHAKACTERISTICS AND SIZE OF EGG BREEDS 

While those breeds and varieties of fowls that 
may be classed as distinctively egg producers vary 
somewhat in size and form, yet they differ so ma- 
terially from the general-purpose and meat breeds 
that they may well be placed by themselves if for 
no other reason than the one distinguishing char- 
acteristic of size. Almost without exception the 
noted egg- producing breeds are small or medium 
in size and possessed of a neat, trim appearance, 
which gives them an air of activity. They are 
also somewhat longer-legged in proportion to their 
size than the meat breeds, yet those having the 
most robust constitution do not appear to be small 
or long-legged. 

While mature fowls of some of the heaviest 
breeds of this class should weigh from six to eight 
pounds, yet the weight is seldom mentioned in de- 
scriptions. This is undoubtedly due to the fact 
that egg production is the chief consideration, re- 
gardless of the weight of the fowl. 

The specific purpose for which these fowls are 
reared being egg production, the breeder does 
not care to sacrifice this product for increased 
meat production, except as increased vigor in the 
individual is likely to bring an increase in size, 
a subject that is discussed somewhat fully in the 
chajjter on breeding. 



16 Farm Poultry 

Disposition. — Almost without exception, a ner- 
vous, active disposition is characteristic of the 
various varieties of fowls which are noted for 
egg-production. They are naturally quick, alert, 
easily frightened, and when once thoroughly 
aroused fly almost with the ease of wild birds. 
On account of this activity, they like a wide 
range and ordinarily do best when not closely 
confined. Many varieties, however, thrive well 
when kept within inclosures, if the confinement 
is not too rigorous. 

Whenever inclosures are provided to restrict 
their range, careful handling is necessary in order 
that the practice of using their wings as a means 
of locomotion may be avoided as far as possible. 
Habit, when once acquired, is not easily changed; 
consequently breeders find it difficult to correct 
the annoying tendency to fly on slight provocation 
when the habit is well formed. Many a fine fowl 
has suffered the death penalty for continually 
fiying over inclosures. Whenever a few fowls of 
a flock or pen have acquired the habit of flying 
over the inclosures or fences, a reasonable modi- 
fication of the inclosure to correct the evil rarely 
suffices. It has been said with much aptness 
that "Egg breeds of fowls, like honey bees, re- 
quire slow movements and careful handling from 
the attendant for success, while hasty movements 
bring annoyance and disaster." 



Early Maturity of Egg Breeds 17 

All fowls may become gentle and tame by 
continued careful handling, so that the charac- 
teristic alertness of the egg breeds need not pre- 
vent the use of these types, even though tame 
fowls are required. Leghorn and Minorca hens 
have frequently been seen to perch on a basket 
carried on the arm of an attendant who was en- 
tering the pen or yard, in order that they might 
secure the first morsel of a coveted food. This 
degree of familiarity is attained only by continued 
thoughtfulness and gentleness on the part of the 
attendant. 

Early maturity. — The noted egg breeds are 
classed among the earliest maturing fowls. In 
fact, they almost form a class by themselves if 
judged from a standpoint of development. Early 
in life they assume the appearance of miniature 
adults, both in general outline or conformation 
and in the growth of plumage. 

The early feathering greatly enhances the prob- 
ability of the young chick living to reach matur- 
ity. Other things being equal, the more rapidly 
the young chick "feathers out" the more hardy it 
becomes. The thne when a young fowl is growing 
feathers rapidly is always a delicate period in its 
existence. It is well known by those who keep 
song birds in cages that the moulting period is a 
trying one for their pets. As these songsters in 
the moulting period are producing feathers, which 



18 Farm Poultry 

make great demands on their systems, their con- 
dition is very similar to that of the young fowl 
that is producing feathers for protection at the 
expense of its physical organization. It is diffi- 
cult if not impossible for a fowl having a weak 
constitution to produce feathers rapidly. 

While all Qgg breeds are not of equal hardiness 
in this respect, yet as a class they pass rapidly 
through the most delicate periods of infancy, 
which goes a long way toward placing them as 
the most hardy of fowls. The individuals of Qgg 
breeds develop combs and wattles early in life, 
which still further give them the appearance of 
small adults. At no time do they appear so ill 
proportioned and awkward as do the good sized 
though undeveloped young of the larger breeds. 

Foor sitters. — All noted egg-producing fowls 
are poor and uncertain sitters. The term "non- 
sitters " has frequently been used to designate va- 
rious breeds of fowls possessed of a marked ten- 
dency toward egg production at the expense of a 
disposition to incubate. 

Breeders have long been trying to further de- 
velop the tendency of egg production that is 
inherent in all the Mediterranean fowls, which 
has resulted in producing an exclusively egg-pro- 
ducing machine. The marked development in 
Qgg production in this class of fowls has been 
accomplished at the expense of other desirable 



Unreliable Incubators 19 

qualities. In other words, the whole energy of 
the fowl is devoted to the one particular pur- 
pose of producing eggs. So far has this been 
carried that breeders are now seeking to breed 
fowls having stronger constitutions, that this 
specialization may be carried to a still gi-eater 
extreme. 

The tendency toward egg production has be- 
come so great that the hen has comparatively little 
desire to rear young and otherwise exercise her ma- 
ternal instincts. Almost without exception, those 
breeds of fowls that are noted especially for egg 
production cannot be depended upon for natural 
incubation if any considerable number of fowls are 
to be reared. Breeders are therefore compelled to 
resort to artificial incubation, or to keep largely if 
not wholly, for incubation, some fowls of another 
breed, whose maternal instincts make them good 
mothers. Occasionally individuals of the egg 
breeds become "broody" and under favorable con- 
ditions prove to be persistent sitters, but too fre- 
quently the desire to incubate is but a fickle one and 
indulged in at the expense of the owner who sup- 
plies the "sitting of eggs." As the hens become 
older the tendency to incubate becomes stronger. 
While these fowls are extremely poor sitters, yet 
so long as they continue to incubate, though it 
be somewhat rarely, the term "non-sitters" cannot 
strictly be applied to them. 



20 Farm Poultry 

Good foragers. — These o^gg breeds rank among 
the most active and industrious fowls, as many 
a good housewife can testify whose cherished 
flower garden lias undergone a system of sur- 
face culture instituted by a Leghorn hen. All 
the noted Qgg producers are very alert, and 
are well suited to foraging, and may obtain a 
considerable portion of their living if a wide 
range is provided. They are not only active, 
but seem to be constantly on the lookout for 
food. It is true that often, under otherwise fa- 
vorable conditions, they seem to endure close 
confinement very well. This is undoubtedly due 
to the fact that they are hardy and will stand 
more or less abuse and still maintain a thrifty 
appearance. They thrive in spite of confinement, 
not because of it. The most skilful breeders, 
who are unable to give their fowls the desired 
run or yard, almost invariably provide means 
for giving the fowls exercise, which may be done 
by requiring them to scratch among litter for 
their food. This will in a degree modify the evil 
of close confinement. 

There is not the least doubt that many fowls 
that are now kept in close confinement would 
be more healthy, give a larger percentage of 
fertile eggs, and in the end prove much more 
profitable if greater freedom could be afforded 
them. 



Warm Quarters Required 21 

Sensitiveness to cold. — All of the noted egg 
breeds have large combs and wattles, which 
make them sensitive to low temperatm^es. Some 
of the breeds having extremely large combs and 
wattles are so liable to have them frosted in the 
colder latitudes that warm quarters must be pro- 
vided if the production of eggs in the winter 
time is a requisite. Theory and practice agree 
that a lower degree of temperature will be en- 
dured without serious results if the quarters oc- 
cupied by the fowls are free from drafts. 

Breeders have sought to remedy this some- 
what serious objection by breeding "rose -combs," 
that are not so readily frozen. In practice this 
is found to be only a partial remedy, as the wat- 
tles, when extremely large, are almost as sensi- 
tive to cold as the large, thin, upright combs. 

The Qgg breeds are much closer feathered than 
the fleshy Asiatics (Brahmas, Cochins and Lang- 
shans), which endure low temperatures so well. 
The thicker coat of fluffy feathers of the Asiatics 
undoubtedly forms a thicker dead air space than 
do the thinner and more compact coats of the 
Qgg breeds. The comparatively long and naked 
shanks, large combs and wattles, with a compact 
coat of feathers, ill prepare the latter to withstand 
the severity of the northern winter when more or 
less exposed by the neglect or indifl'erence too 
often accorded the fowls on the average farm. 



22 Farm Poultry 

It should not be inferred, however, that these 
fowls are not suited to the northern, central and 
New England states, for they are the best winter 
layers when warm and comfortable quarters are 
provided. Even when more or less neglected they 
may still prove to be wholly satisfactory as winter 
layers on account of their hardiness and their 
great natural tendency to produce eggs. The very 
fact that they do so well under comparative ne- 
glect is one of the chief reasons for such unsat- 
isfactory results in poultry - keeping : fowls that 
will live with little care are likely to receive 
little care. It often happens that the most deli- 
cate breeds receive the most care. 

BKEEDS AND VARIETIES 

The most noted egg breeds now reared in the 
United States include the so-called Mediterranean 
fowls, which comprise the following breeds: Leg- 
horn, Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian, and Span- 
ish. To these should be added the Hamburg, 
Red Cap, Houdan, and perhaps some others. 
Some of these breeds are further subdivided into 
numerous varieties which partake of the same 
general form and disposition but differ greatly in 
color of plumage. 

In producing so great a variety in plumage as 
seen hi the numerous varieties of some breeds. 



Breeds and Varieties 23 

notably the Leghorn, foreign blood has been in- 
troduced which has modified, to some extent, the 
laying propensities. At first thought the prac- 
tice of introducing the blood of an alien breed in 
the formation of a new variety of an egg breed 
would be condemned; but when it is once well 
understood that crossing within certain limits 
brings increased vigor to the progeny, it may be 
seen that for egg production alone the new va- 
riety, which is given a little more robustness, 
may be made to produce as many eggs by a pro- 
cess of moderately-forced feeding as the some- 
what more delicate pure breed whose inherent 
tendency to egg production may be a little 
stronger. 

Leghorn.— This is one of the Mediterranean 
breeds whose name is supposed to have been de- 
rived from the city of Leghorn in Italy, whence 
they are thought to have been brought to Amer- 
ica. The early history of the breed is now more or 
less obscure, and this is due, no doubt, in a large 
degree, to the fact that they were unpopular for 
many years after they were introduced into this 
country. Although they are credited with being 
introduced in the early part of the nineteenth 
century, it was not until after the middle of the 
century that they attracted much attention. As 
the popular animals and crops are most written 
about, it is not strange that a more or less un- 



24 



Farm Poultry 



popular breed should pass for nearly half a cen- 
tury with comparatively slight notice. Since the 
introduction of the Leghorns, however, they have 
been considerably changed and bred to that degree 
of perfection that has designated them an Amer- 




Fig. 1. A White Leghorn cockerel. 

icanized, if not an American breed. In the early 
history of these fowls in this country they were 
spoken of as being of various colors yet all par- 
taking of the same general nature, and were 
recognized as belonging to the same breed. The 



Varieties 



25 



different varieties that are now recognized had 
not then been formed. 

All varieties of Leghorns are comparatively 
small in size, and consequently are not well 




Fig. 2. White Leghcrns. 



suited to those who depend largely upon their 
fowls for the supply of fresh meat for the table. 
They are active and do not fatten so readily 
under ordinary conditions as larger and less 



26 Farm Poultry 

active breeds. These fowls are hardy, and all 
varieties are good layers, most of them being 
extremely prolific. 

The fact of their being hardy in all stages of 
development, as well as extremely good layers, 
fits them for the farm, where a considerable 
revenue is expected from the sale of eggs and 
where comparatively little importance is placed 
on the production of meat. They are noted for 
laying early in life ; frequently early-hatched pul- 
lets lay at five months of age and under favora- 
ble conditions will lay well throughout the winter 
and summer months. Many records of more than 
two hundred eggs per year from single birds are 
known, and even large flocks have produced two 
hundred eggs per hen in a single year. 

The Leghorns are comparatively light eaters 
and are somewhat less expensive to raise to ma- 
turity than larger and heavier -bodied fowls. All 
varieties of Leghorns are active and do best if 
given wide liberty and if permitted to take much 
exercise in search of food. 

The varieties of the Leghorn breed are* 



White, 


Rose -comb Brown, 


Rose-comb White, 


Buff, 


Black, 


Silver Duckwing. 


Browiij 





All varieties except the Rose -comb White and 
the Rose- comb Brown have large single combs, 



Varieties 



27 



which, in the males, should be thin, firm and 
erect. In the females they should fall gracefully 
to one side, particularly during the laying period. 




Buff Leghorn cockerel (-g" size). 



The White and the Brown varieties are older than 
the others and are usually selected when egg pro- 
duction is the sole object. Some of the new varie- 
ties have not been bred pure long enough to become 
thoroughly fixed in their distinctive characteristics. 



28 Farm Poultry 

There is practically no difference between the 
White and the Brown varieties in the number of 
eggs produced. The White, however, lays some- 
what larger eggs than the Brown, and the shells 
are of a purer white; that is, the shells of the 
Brown Leghorn are a little tinted, although they 
pass for white eggs. The color of the shells is 
of minor importance, although it is recognized 
as one of the fancy points when highest priced 
eggs are produced. In some markets white eggs 
sell for the highest prices ; in other markets brown 
eggs are preferred. Under ordinary conditions 
the difference in the color will be of little or 
no value. If, however, the poultryman desires 
to produce the highest -priced eggs some atten- 
tion should be given to the color and other char- 
acteristics which go to make up uniformity of 
product. 

It needs no argument to sustain the assertion 
that, other things being equal, those fowls that 
lay the largest eggs are to be preferred. At 
first thought it may appear to be of more impor- 
tance to those who aim to produce eggs for their 
own table than to those who produce eggs for 
the market to be sold by the dozen. It should 
not be forgotten, however, that continued success 
in any business requires the business man to sat- 
isfy his customers. He should aim, therefore, to 
produce good- sized eggs, which will not only be 



Size of Eggs 



29 



acceptable as to quality, but also as to weight. 
It will be evident to all that those fowls which 
lay the greatest weight of eggs during the year 
will be the most economical for the farmer to 
keep to supply the wants of his own table. The 
difference in expense of keeping fowls which lay 




Fig, 4. Buff Leghorn pullet (one-sixth size). 

different sized eggs is not commensurate with the 
difference in the value of the product. This sub- 
ject will be given a fuller discussion in another 
chapter. 

It is asserted that some of the other and newer 
varieties of Leghorns are equally as good egg 
producers as the White and the Brown varieties. 



30 Farm Poultry 

However, the majority of practical poultrymen 
who have selected a variety of the Leghorns and 
have entered into the business of o^gg production 
for profit select either the White or the Brown 
variety. 




Fig. 5. Single-comb Brown Leghorn hen (two-thirteenths size). 

Fowls of a solid color, like the White or the 
Black variety of the Leghorn breed, often prove 
most satisfactory in the hands of a poultryman 
whose primary object is to produce eggs, and 
whose secondary object is to sell his surplus stock 
for breeding purposes at something more than 
the price which dressed poultry brings in the 
market. The reason for this is readily seen when 
we consider that old fowls must be disposed of 
and be replaced by younger and more vigorous 



Selling Surplus Stock 31 

stock. Such stock may frequently be sold and 
used for breeders after having served a period 
of forced egg production, provided it represents 
fairly well the type of fowls to which it belongs. 
Fowls are more likely to represent a type in 
color if they are solid- colored than if the plu- 
mage is distinguished by various markings, as 
seen in many of the useful breeds. In other 
words, the poultryman finds it much easier to 
develop the one point of egg production than to 
breed for plumage and develop for egg produc- 
tion at the same time. One important principle 
in stock breeding should not be forgotten, — that 
it is much easier to develop one useful quality 
to its greatest perfection than to develop two 
qualities which are not closely correlated. Con- 
sequently, it is found much easier to produce 
strong, robust fowls of a solid color for egg pro- 
duction than to produce equally as good birds 
of a colored variety, for both exhibition and use- 
ful qualities. 

Minorca. — This breed is thought to have been 
introduced into England from the island of Mi- 
norca, in the Mediterranean sea, and it is said 
by some poultry authorities to be the progenitor 
of the White -faced Black Spanish breed. These 
are the heaviest of the Mediterranean fowls. The 
cock should weigh 8 pounds and the hen 6%. 
They have the great laying tendencies of the 



32 Farm Poultry 

fowls of this class. Lewis Wright, writing of Eng- 
lish fowls, places them second on the list of 
ggg producers. The Minorcas have two varieties, 
the White and .the Black. In appearance they 
resemble the Leghorns, although they have larger 




Fig. 6. Black Minorca cockerel (one-seventh size). 

combs and wattles. The solid color is in their 
favor, although there is a tendency toward white 
in the primaries of the Black variety. They have 
not been so popular for egg production as the 
Leghorns, although they are coming more into 
popular favor. The eggs of this breed are large 



Minorcas 33 

and white. They average about eight to the pound. 
As Americans prefer fowls having yellow skin and 
shanks, the Minorcas are therefore placed at a 
disadvantage, as their skin is white and the shanks 
and feet of a dark, leaden color approaching black. 




Fig. 7. Black Minorca lieu (one-seventh size). 

Andalusian. — This breed is thought to be na- 
tive to Andalusia, a province in the southern 
part of Spain. It is a large, hardy breed of 
the Mediterranean class. These fowls have not 
been popular in the United States, partly owing, 
no doubt, to the color of their skin and shanks. 
The skin is white and the shanks and toes are 



34 Farm Poultry 

Slaty blue. For farm purposes they are consid- 
ered about the same as the Minorcas. There is 
only one variety of this breed. The plumage 
is of a bluish gi'ay or dove color, approaching 
black on the back. They do not breed so true 
to color as some of the other breeds of this class. 
They are excellent layers, but are not supplant- 
ing the Leghorns for this purpose. They are 
classed with the non- sitters, but have a somewhat 
greater tendency to incubate than Leghorns do. 

Spanish. — Now known as the White -faced 
Black Spanish. This breed has been bred pure for 
a great many years in England. It is called the 
oldest of the non-sitting varieties. There seems 
to be no doubt in the minds of many authorities 
that this Spanish breed came from some of the 
Mediterranean countries, and probably from Spain. 
The fowls are somewhat longer- legged in propor- 
tion to the size of the body than the other breeds 
of this class. They are glossy black throughout, 
without any white or gray feathers. The shanks 
and toes are dark in color, leaden blue approach- 
ing black. The Spanish is not as hardy as the 
other breeds mentioned, particularly when imma- 
ture and subjected to more or less dampness. The 
chickens do not feather as rapidly as the Leghorns 
and are considered more delicate. On account, no 
doubt, of the somewhat more delicate constitution, 
the eggs are more or less infertile, and breeders 



Fancy Points 35 

consequently are forced to keep a somewhat smaller 
number of females with one male than with other 
breeds of fowls noted for egg production. Breed- 
ers have attempted, and succeeded in a large meas- 
ure, in developing more fancy points with the 
White -faced Black Spanish than with other noted 
egg breeds of a solid color. This breeding for 
fancy points is thought to have weakened the con- 
stitution considerably. On account of the develop- 
ment of these fancy points, some practical poultry- 
keepers are inclined to consider the Spanish as a 
fancy breed rather than to class it among the mosT, 
useful ones. AVliile they will undoubtedly produce 
a good supply of eggs under favorable conditions, 
yet the fact remains that few if any practical poul- 
trymen select them solely for egg production. 
The white face is a distinguishing feature of this 
fowl, as the white of the face and the ear lobe 
form a continuous smooth, white surface extending 
down as far as the wattles. They have large, 
single combs. For farm purposes they should be 
placed after the Leghorns, Minorcas, and Andalu- 
sians. 

Hamburg. — The Hamburgs have long been 
known as prolific egg producers. This class con- 
sists of two breeds, the Hamburgs and Eed Caps. 
Of the former there are six varieties, and of the 
latter but one. The Hamburg breed was intro- 
duced into England from Holland or North Ger- 



36 Farm Poultry 

many, and eventually took the name of the noted 
seaport, Hamburg, although they were known at 
that time, and for many years after their intro- 
duction into Great Britain, as the "Dutch every- 
day layers," or "everlasting layers." They are 
small, active fowls, and are recognized as being 
extremely good layers if kept under favorable 
conditions. It is said that when properly kept 
they will equal the Leghorns in egg production, 
although as a matter of fact comparatively few 
poultrymen select Hamburgs in preference to the 
Mediterranean fowls when egg production is the 
sole, or even the chief, object. They are quite as 
difficult to keep in confinement as any of the 
Mediterraneans, being small, light, and easily 
frightened. Their tendency to fly makes it diffi- 
cult to keep them in the yards or runs. Of all 
breeds, probably there is none that likes a wide 
range better than the Hamburgs. Their eggs are 
small and white, being somewhat smaller than 
those of the Leghorns. The recognized varieties 
are : 

Golden -spangled, Golden-penciled, White, 

Silver- spangled, Silver-penciled, Black. 

All varieties have blue, or leaden-blue, shanks 
and toes except, possibly, the Black, which may 
have dark, leaden-blue or black shanks and toes. 
All have rose combs, which terminate in a spike 
or point at the rear. This point is usually some- 



Hamburgs 



37 



what elevated, and is one of the characteristic 
features of the Hamburg comb. When these 
fowls are entered for competition at shows or ex- 
hibitions there is no weight qualification. Their 
small size makes them unprofitable as table 




l,.;i>>^-'^ 



Fig. 8. Silver Spangled Hamburg cock. 

fowls; then, too, the color of their shanks and 
skin is against them for table use. The chickens 
are not noted for their vigor, and it is said that 
both old and young are likely to suffer from want 
of cleanliness more than any other egg breed, 
with the possible exception of the White-faced 
Black Spanish. Wright says they do not stand 
crowding well, and that "where six Brahmas 
could be kept, four Hamburgs are quite enough." 



38 Farm Poultry 

Bed Cap. — This is recognized as a distinct 
breed, yet the fowls resemble the Hamburgs in 
many respects. They are somewhat larger than 
the Hamburgs, and compare with them in size 
much as the Minorcas compare with the Leg- 
horns. They are quite hardy, and are extremely 
good layers. They have large rose combs, which 
have a tendency to grow somewhat irregular. 
This makes them difficult to breed for exhibition 
purposes. They have slate-colored shanks. The 
plumage is red and black. Cocks should weigh 
7%, hen 6%, cockerel 6, and pullet 5 pounds. 



CHAPTER III 
MEAT BREEDS 

Those breeds that are reared especially for 
the production of meat, either for home consump- 
tion or for the market, are good-sized, compactly 
built fowls, probably of Asiatic origin. They 
are much heavier than those that are reared es- 
pecially for egg production and differ from them 
almost as much in general outline as they do in 
size and weight. It should be borne in mind 
that the term "meat breeds," as used in this 
volume, refers chiefly to those breeds whose 
greatest usefulness is in the production of meat. 
While the quality of the flesh of these fowls 
may not exceed, or even equal, the flesh of some 
other breeds, yet on account of their large size 
they are especially prized for table use under cer- 
tain conditions. As a good-sized roast of meat 
is preferred to a small one, so large fowls are 
preferred for certain methods of cooking. Cer- 
tain it is that large fowls are usually served to 
better advantage than small ones. 

As a rule the noted meat breeds are larger, 
more compact and "blocky" than the Mediter- 

V89) 



40 Farm Poultry 

raneans. They are broader and deeper in body, 
fuller in breast and have shorter necks and legs. 
While some of the intermediate, or general -pm-- 
pose fowls, as they are sometimes called, are 
reared wholly for their flesh, they should not be 
classified with the distinctively meat breeds. 
The latter fowls produce, under favorable con- 
ditions, a good number of eggs, which, together 
with their size, warrants placing them in the 
intermediate class, which may be called general- 
purpose breeds, for convenience of discussion. 
Whatever may be said of those fowls noted for 
meat production will apply only in part to the 
smaller general -purpose fowls, so far as they 
enter into competition for meat production. As 
a matter of fact, many of the so-called general - 
purpose fowls are reared extensively for meat 
production, but they are nevertheless of a different 
type from the large, heavy, phlegmatic breeds, 
whose greatest usefulness is in the production of 
large, plump bodies, most highly prized for table 
use. These meat breeds form a class by them- 
selves even when the fowls are considered from 
the standpoint of weight only. 

Disposition. — Without exception all the noted 
meat breeds are slow and more or less sluggish 
in movement and are not easily frightened. They 
become very tame and gentle with careful treat- 
ment and do not show a dislike to handling, as 



Quiet Fowls 41 

do some of the smaller and more nervous breeds. 
They are not well calculated to seek their own 
living, even though a wide range be provided. 
They have little desire to roam far from 
home unless compelled to do so in search of 
food. Even then their slow and, in many cases, 
awkward movements totally unfit them for for- 
aging for insects and other foods which nature 
provides, in competition with more active breeds. 
Preeminently, they are fowls which should be fed, 
rather than allowed to shift for themselves. As 
the more active, nervolis Mediterraneans illustrate 
an ideal fowl for foraging, so the heavy, clumsy, 
phlegmatic meat breeds represent the opposite 
extreme, or that of gentleness and docility. 

Easily confined, — If only the heavy- bodied 
fowls are to be reared on farms where all fowls 
are to be kept within inclosures, comparatively 
low fences will suffice. When mature, fowls of 
the heaviest breeds rarely fly from the ground, 
and are satisfied with comparatively low perches. 
On account of their gentle dispositions they make 
most excellent "lawn fowls," and may be given 
liberty without fear of trespassing on the holdings 
of a near-by neighbor. In the minds of many, a 
few fowls on the back lawn during certain por- 
tions of the year add to the attractiveness of the 
surroundings and bring pleasure to the owner, 
who delights in the freedom of his birds. This 



42 Farm Poultry 

is particularly true if he is assured that these 
birds, which, in a sense, have become pets, are 
quite certain not to annoy either the members 
of his own household or his neighbors. There 
are probably no breeds of fowls so well suited 
to have the liberties of a small farm or lot as 
these slow-moving Asiatics. 

Laying qualities. — The laying qualities of these 
fowls are considerably below the average, and, as 
a rule, are not to be compared with those of the 
more active fowls which originated in the coun- 
tries bordering on the Mediterranean. 

The useful qualities of animals reach the high- 
est state of development when one quality is de- 
veloped at the expense of others. Experience has 
shown, as already stated (p. 31), that it has not 
been possible to develop in the same individual or 
breed two or more useful qualities to the highest 
stage of perfection. The two most highly prized 
useful qualities in our domesticated fowls are meat 
and Qgg production. When one is unusually well 
developed the other is lessened in value or impor- 
tance, so that both are never developed to the great- 
est extent in one individual. Admirable illustra- 
tions' are seen in the development of animals that 
are highly prized for the production of meat or of 
milk. In no instance has the best milker been 
most highly prized for meat production. A similar 
condition exists in the poultry world. While the 



Meat Breeds as Egg Producers 43 

breeding of fowls solely for egg production, or for 
meat production, has reached a high state of per- 
fection, yet these two qualities are not brought to 
the highest stage of perfection in one individual. 
As the development of either is chiefly a matter 
of food and constitutional vigor, the greatest and 
most perfect result is reached when the energies 
of the individual are deflected chiefly in one direc- 
tion. With both animals and plants, it is a good 
maxim to "breed for one thing at a time." 

While some breeds or varieties of large fowls, 
notably the Light Brahmas, are good winter layers 
while young, yet it is not to be inferred from 
any records these fowls may have made that they 
are equal to some of the Mediterranean breeds as 
economical egg-producing machines, when the en- 
tire life of the fowl is taken into consideration. 
The modern poultryman regards his fowls much 
as a manufacturer regards his machine, and, in 
either case, the machine that will run at its fullest 
capacity for the longest period, other things be- 
ing equal, will bring to the owner the most profit. 
While poultry -keepers may rightly consider their 
fowls as machines for the production of meat 
and eggs, yet it should be understood that it is 
not only desirable, but necessary, that the suc- 
cessful poultryman regard his flock from a stand- 
point other than a purely business one. It is 
necessary to the most successful poultry busi- 



44 Farm Poultry 

ness that the poultryman love his fowls. Unless 
the live stock owner has a love for the animals 
under his charge, and which is entirely distinct 
from the purpose for which he is breeding them, 
he is not likely to study their necessities and 
comforts. 

The distinctive meat breeds include all of the 
Asiatics, namely, the Brahmas, Cochins and 
Langshans. Of the Brahmas, there are two va- 
rieties, the Light and the Dark. The Cochins are 
represented by four varieties, — Buff, Partridge, 
White, and Black; while the Langshans have but 
two varieties, — Black and White ^ 

Late maturity. ^li is well understood that in 
the development of animal life large size is not 
conducive to early maturity. Thus, heavy meat 
breeds require a much longer time in which to 
reach maturity than do the smaller, more ac- 
tive fowls. On this account the chicks are 
considered somewhat more delicate. This is be- 
cause they require a much longer time while 
passing the early and critical periods of their 
existence. Little chickens are more delicate than 
mature fowls; consequently, the longer the time 
required to pass through the juvenile period the 
more difficult they are to rear. On the other 
hand, the little chicks are well suited to with- 
stand the hardships of early life if they are 
kept dry and clean. The young of some varieties 



Origin of BraJimas 



45 



are much better protected with down and feathers 
than others. 



BKAHMAS 



These are frequently called the leading breed 
of the Asiatics. Light Brahmas, particularly, 
have long been popular with many poultry -keep- 




A flock of Light Brahmas. 



ers throughout the country. The origin of these 
fowls is somewhat obscure. Wright and others 
think that they probably have descended from 
the fowls of India, while Tegetmeier asserts that 
this breed was probably formed in America. 

A distinctive feature of the Brahmas is the 
comb, which is known as the pea -comb. It is 
unlike either the rose- or the single comb. The 
pea -comb has been described as the union of 
three single combs, joined at the front, rear and 



46 Farm Poultry 

base, the middle comb being somewhat larger 
than the other two. Each comb should have 
distinct serrations. 

The Brahmas are large fowls, — in fact, the 
largest variety known is the Light Brahma. The 
Light Brahma cock should weigh 12 and the hen 




Fig. 10. Dark Brahma ooek (one-eighth, size). 

9% pounds. The Dark Brahmas are a pound 
lighter. The Brahmas have yellow skin and 
shanks, and the outsides of the shanks are feath- 
ered. Leg -feathering is undoubtedly a protec- 
tion during the severe winter weather, but it is 
somewhat objectionable, as the majority of con- 
sumers prefer a clean -legged fowl. 



Characteristics of Brahmas 47 

The young birds do not "feather out" so rap- 
idly as the young of the Mediterraneans, and 
consequently are ill-looking while young on ac- 
count of their partially naked appearance. Some- 
times this partial nakedness continues throughout 




Fig. 11. Dark Brahma hen (one-seventh size). 

a considerable period of their growth. Some 
farmers object to Brahmas on account of this 
slow feathering, but this characteristic cannot de- 
tract materially from their usefulness. 

When not injured by breeding for fancy points, 
as sometimes is done in the production of fowls 
for exhibition, the pullets make good winter layers. 



48 Farm Poultry 

For egg production, however, they should not 
be kept longer than two years. If the pullets 
are early hatched and mature reasonably early, 
for Brahmas, they should not be kept longer than 
one complete season of usefulness if egg produc- 
tion is an important essential. 

The Dark Brahmas are not considered to be as 
good layers as the Light variety, and are quite 
as difficult to breed true to color. The Dark 
Brahmas have somewhat delicate feather mark- 
ings which are difficult to produce with that 
degree of excellence necessary for exhibition 
purposes. 

The Brahmas are good sitters, in fact sit too 
much for general -purpose fowls, and are consid- 
ered too heavy to sit on eggs of light-weight fowlg. 
All Asiatics lay buff-colored eggs. Some of them 
are much darker than others. The Brahmas are 
"good growers" and make excellent table fowls. 
They are fairly hardy and gain rapidly in weight. 
The meat is of fair quality, but does not equal 
that of the Dorking or Game. The Dark Brahmas 
are not quite so popular as the Light, which is no 
doubt due to the superior egg production of the 
latter. Brahmas do well in small runs or yards. 
When liberally fed the Brahmas have a tendency 
to become too fat for laying and for breeding 
purposes. Excessive fatness not only causes fewer 
eggs, but a larger proportion of infertile ones. 



1 



Useful Qualities of Cochins 49 

COCHINS 

The Cochins were introduced into England from 
China about 1843, when the ports of China were 
opened to European traders. They are a pound 
lighter than the Light Brahmas. They are dis- 




Fig. 12. Buff Cochin cock (one-eighth size), 

tinctively table fowls. The hens are good sitters, 
easily handled, and are slow and awkward in 
movement. The young are fairly hardy after the 
chickens once get a good start. They grow fast 
and furnish a good quantity of meat, but not of 
the best quality. They are considered indifferent 
layers. These fowls are gentle and tame, very 



50 Farm Poultry 

peaceable, seldom quarrel and stand confinement 
well. They do well where others wonld not thrive 
for lack of exercise. 

The Buff Cochins are as pure buff as any of 
the buff breeds. This variety is the most popular 
of the Cochins. The fowls have an abundance 




Fig. 13. Buflf Cochin hen (one-seventh size). 

of fluffy feathers which enable them to with- 
stand severe cold weather. Their shanks are well 
feathered on the outer side. The middle and 
outer toes are also feathered, while the inner 
toes are entirely naked. They have small, single, 
upright combs. They are much admired by those 
who delight in large, gentle, slow-moving fowls. 



Langshans Described 51 

LANGSHANS 

Langshans are natives of northern China and 
were introduced into England about a quarter of 
a century ago. They have not been bred to a 
great extent in America until the last few years. 
They endure severe weather well, and are said 
to be good winter layers. It is also said that the 
tendency to incubate is not so great as in the 
Cochins. The cock should weigh 10 and the 
hen 7 pounds. The Langshans are the small- 
est and most active of the Asiatics, and more 
nearly approach the general -purpose fowl than do 
the other Orientals. They have white skin and 
dark shanks, while the others have yellow skin 
and yellow shanks. The quality of the flesh is 
considered excellent, being fine-grained for such 
large fowls. They are better foragers than the 
Cochins and Brahmas. They are somewhat longer- 
legged than the Brahmas and Cochins, and con- 
sequently appear taller in proportion to their size. 
Their leg feathering is less than that of the other 
Asiatics. 

Langshans are steadily gaining in popularity, 
although they will probably never become so popu- 
lar as the general -purpose breeds unless they 
undergo a marked modification. They are pre- 
ferred by some Ijecause they are more active 
than either the Brahmas or Cochins. 



52 



Farm Poultry 



FAVEKOLLE 



This is a class of cross-bred fowls, not being 
a distinct breed, but serving a useful purpose as 
meat producers. It has supplanted the Houdan 
and other French breeds in some parts of France, 




Fig. 14. Faverolle cock (one-eighth size), 

where the production of good- sized young birds 
for the Paris market is the chief aim. 

The Faverolles were produced by crossing the 
following breeds: Cochin, Brahma, Dorking, and 
Houdan. They are bearded and sometimes have 
a crest, frequently have five toes, and show white 
skin and light- colored shanks. The shanks are 



Faverolles 



53 



usually feathered unless the Dorking blood pre- 
dominates, in which case they are frequently bare. 
For early-rearing and quick- growing chickens that 
produce tender and juicy flesh, the Faverolles 
are highly prized where they are best known. It 




Fig. 15, FaveroUe hen (one-sixth size). 

is undoubtedly true that the flesh of the mature 
birds is somewhat coarse and undesirable. While 
these fowls may become a well-established breed 
and may be highly prized for the fine quality of 
their meat, it is doubtful if they ever become 
popular in America as farm fowls. 



CHAPTER IV 

GENERAL - F UBPOSE FO WLS' 

As the name indicates, the general -purpose 
breeds inchide such fowls as may profitably be 
kept on the farm for the production of both meat 
and eggs, particularly under the conditions that 
require natural incubation. They are adapted to 
common and general conditions. It should not 
be forgotten that the term "general -purpose" is 
relative and is not intended to express exact con- 
ditions. It is impossible to make definite class- 
ifications of the various breeds of fowls, as some 
breeds in the hands of skilled poultrymen may 
prove profitable, while in the hands of an unskilled 
person they would not compare favorably with many 
other breeds that really are less productive. Fowls 
of all breeds and varieties lay eggs, and the flesh of 
all fowls furnishes good and wholesome food, yet all 
breeds are not equally desirable for these purposes. 

Farmers, from the fact that they are somewhat 
isolated, require fowls that are noted for utility 
along more than one line of production. They 
look not only for a fairly good egg production, but 
also for a body of considerable size that will fur- 

(54) 



Beguirements of Farmers 55 

nish a good quantity of meat of first-class quality 
for table use. Both eggs and meat are of the 
highest importance for the practical farmer, for 
upon his poultry he depends to a greater extent 
than he himself is aware. The quality of the 
meat, as well as its quantity, is to be considered. 
Not only does the farmer demand meat when the 
fowls are mature, but the meat of fowls of all 
ages after the young reach the broiler stage must 
be of good quality. It is vitally important, also, 
that the fowls produce the greatest quantity and 
best quality of meat from the food consumed; 
for some fowls eat much and produce relatively 
little. Good layers are also required, especially 
during the winter months. Steady winter layers 
are demanded by the farmer quite as much as by 
the poultryman whose business it is to produce 
eggs for the market. Most farmers do not expect 
to consume all the product of the poultry yard 
at home. If eggs are produced in good num- 
bers during the cold weather, a high price is 
usually realized for them. A greater price is real- 
ized from winter eggs than from those produced 
during the spring and summer months when fowls 
lay most abundantly. It is also desired that the 
farm hen should become "broody," incubate and 
prove a good mother for her young. Many farm- 
ers do not feel that they can afford to be bur- 
dened with the extra care and study which the 



56 Farm Poultry 

successful operation of the modern incubator 
would incur. They therefore depend upon the 
natural instincts of the fowls to provide incuba- 
tors and brooders. Some of the more noted 
characteristics of the general -purpose fowls are 
discussed in the following paragraphs. 

Size. — These fowls are usually of medium size; 
that is, they rarely represent either extreme, al- 
though the largest breed— the Light Brahmas — 
may, under exceptionally favorable conditions, 
prove to be fairly good farm fowls. The general- 
purpose fowls, as a rule, have blocky, compact 
bodies, which is one of the requisites for meat 
production. They are rarely long-legged. They 
are most economical feeders; that is, they make 
a good growth for the food consumed. 

Disposition. — Gentleness is one of the charac- 
teristics of these breeds. The fowls are not easily 
frightened, and are more easily confined than 
the breeds which are noted for ^g^ produc- 
tion alone. They rarely attempt to use their 
wings in order to escape from inclosures of me- 
dium height. While they may become wild and 
easily frightened by improper management, yet 
with proper care they become quite as docile 
and tame as is consistent with ease of manage- 
ment and profit. They occupy a medium position 
between the Mediterraneans and the Asiatics as 
regards size, egg production, and docility. 



Useful Qualities 57 

Early maturity. — These fowls are hardy, grow 
quickly and pass through the delicate stages of 
early life rapidly. They closely resemble the most 
hardy of the noted egg breeds in this respect. 
They are considered to be hardy at all stages, 
which is an important point for farm poultry. 
The many cares of busy farm life during the 
growing seasons of the year sometimes prevent 
giving the fowls the close attention which the 
more delicate breeds require in order that they 
may be brought safely to a stronger stage of 
development. Hardiness at all stages of de- 
velopment is, therefore, an important character- 
istic of farm poultry. Early maturity produces 
early -laying pullets. The so-called general -pur- 
pose breeds mature early and frequently produce 
pullets that will lay at five months of age. 
Early- hatched pullets, as a rule, will lay at an 
earlier age than those hatched later in the sea- 
son. The early- hatched fowls generally grow 
most rapidly and reach maturity in the shortest 
time. Early- hatched fowls are usually preferred 
for breeding as well as for utility. 

Good sitters and good brooders. — While these 
fowls are not as persistent sitters as the Asiatics, 
yet they may be depended upon for natural in- 
cubation, particularly if the hens are kept until 
they are two or three years old. They make ex- 
.cellent mothers, as they care for their young 



58 Farm Poultry 

excellently and have a great abundance of fluffy 
feathers, which enable them to do their brood- 
ing well. They are probably somewhat better 
sitters and brooders than the extremely heavy 
fowls. Fewer eggs are likely to be broken by 
these careful birds than by the larger and more 
clumsy kinds. 

Good foragers. — These fowls are good fora- 
gers, considering their size. While they are not 
inclined to roam as far as some of the lighter 
and more active breeds, yet they are well calcu- 
lated to seek their own living when an oppor- 
tunity is afforded them. The young fowls will 
roam a considerable distance for insects and green 
food, and in this respect they occupy a medium 
position between the active, nervous breeds and 
the heavy Asiatics, approaching ' more nearly the 
former than the latter. 

Endure cold weather well.— The compact body 
and medium- sized combs and wattles enable 
the general -purpose fowls to withstand the 
severe weather of the winters. While a frosted 
comb may occasionally result, yet they are not 
nearly so liable to injury by freezing as are the 
more noted egg breeds. They have a somewhat 
thicker coat of feathers and more fluff than the 
Mediterraneans. The thick coat of feathers gives 
them a much better protection than a thin one, 
for the reason that the air space inclosed by 



Plymouth Rocks 59 

a thick coat is considerably greater than that 
inclosed by a thin one. While they do not 
equal the Asiatics in this respect, yet they are 
sufficiently protected to withstand the rigors of 
the northern winters. 



BARRED PLYMOUTH ROCK 

This variety probably originated in Massa- 
chusetts something more than forty years ago. 
It is said to have sprung from the cross of a 
Dominique cock and a Black Java hen. The 
Barred Plymouth Rocks combine largely the qual- 
ities of both these breeds. They more nearly 
approach the Java in size, but retain many of 
the good qualities of the Dominique. While they 
do not have the color of either parent, yet they 
more nearly approach that of the Dominique. 
These fowls approach the Asiatics in size, the 
Leghorns in Qgg production, and constitute one 
of the most useful varieties. They also produce 
flesh of an excellent quality. It is maintained 
by some breeders of Plymouth Rocks that the 
quality of the flesh approaches that of the Dork- 
ing. They are blocky fowls, have large, full, 
plump, well-proportioned bodies, yellow shanks 
and skin. The flesh is of good texture and 
flavor. The cock weighs 9%, the hen 7%, 
cockerel 8, pullet 6% pounds. They are early 



60 



Farm Poultry 



maturing, considering their size, are good layers, 
hardy both as little chicks and mature fowls. 
They are excellent mothers, kind and persistent 
sitters. The laying capacity is considerably above 




Fig. 16. Barred Plymouth Rock cockerel, sis montlis old 
(one-seventh size). 



the average of fowls. Authentic records are re- 
ported of more than two hundred and thirty 
eggs per year from single birds. The pullets make 
excellent winter layers, but for greatest Qgg pro- 
duction in the winter time fowls should not be 



Plymouth Eochs 



61 



kept longer than two years. They are easily 
kept in confinement and are adapted to nearly 
all climates. Probably no breed better combines 
these two qualities — egg - production and the 
yielding of a large amount of good meat for 
the table. 




Fig. 17. Barred Plymouth Rock hen (one-seventh size). 



BUFF AND WHITE PLYMOUTH EOCK 



The other varieties of the Plymouth Rocks 
are the Buff and the White. In a general way, 
what has been said of the Barred Plymouth 
Eocks will apply to all varieties of this breed, 
although these newer varieties are not quite so 
well fixed as the Barred. It is asserted, how- 



62 



Farm Poultry 



ever, that the White Plymouth Rocks originated 
as an off-shoot from the Barred Plymouth Pocks 
early in the history of the latter.* The Plymouth 
Pock form predominates in all varieties, and the 
solid colors have the advantage of the Barred 




Fig. 18. Buff PljTnoiith Rock cockerel (one-seventh size). 

in mating, as often, with the Barred, the best 
formed fowl will be objectionable on account of 
some imperfection in color, so that it must be 
discarded from the breeding-pen if characteristic 
colors are desired. 

*" Barred and White Plymouth Rocks," by Wallace. 



Plymouth RocTcs and Wyandottes 63 

The White variety is preferred by poultrymen 
who rear young fowls for market. White fowls 
present a better appearance when dressed than 
colored ones do, particularly if the fowls are not 
in the most perfect condition. Immature fowls 
of all breeds and varieties have more or less 
undeveloped feathers, the removal of which, in 
colored varieties, leaves a discoloration beneath 
the skin. On this account, young birds of a 
white variety that are dressed for the market 
present a better appearance than equally as good 
birds of a colored variety. As long as attrac- 
tive apx-)earance is a desired quality in dressed 
fowls, white varieties will be preferred. 

Each of the three varieties has medium- sized 
single combs. In size, the combs and wattles 
occupy a medium position between the Cochins 
and the Mediterraneans. The eggs of each va- 
riety are buff in color, but vary considerably in 
shade. 

WYANDOTTE 

The Wyandottes are not so old as the Plymouth 
Eocks. When first introduced, they came at 
once into popular favor, and are now crowding 
the Plymouth Rocks for supremacy as the best 
general - jjurpose fowls. They were recognized by 
the American Poultry Association as a distinct 
breed in 1883. Previous to that time they were 



64 Far7n Poultry 

known and sold as American Sebrights, Excel- 
siors, Ambrights, etc. They are a little smaller 
than the Plymouth Rocks, the cock weighing 
8%, hen 6%, cockerel 7%, pullet 5% pounds. 
•They have yellow skin and shanks. As pro- 
ducers of broilers to weigh two .pounds apiece 
they are highly esteemed. The hens are excel- 
lent sitters and make good mothers. In this re- 
spect they closely resemble the Plymouth Rocks. 
The Wyandottes have a neat and trim appearance, 
are good-sized, produce excellent flesh, and have 
a gentle disposition. They are generally called 
handsome fowls. In appearance, they are some- 
what neater than the Plymouth Rocks. In ful- 
filling the demands of the farmer for the eco- 
nomical production of both eggs and meat the 
Wyandottes are not wanting. Joseph Wallace 
says, "It should not be claimed that the Wyan- 
dottes, in quality and quantity of breast meat, 
equal the Dorking, Houdan or Grame." Neither 
do they equal the Leghorns or the Minorcas in 
egg -production, yet they are excellent general- 
purpose fowls. They are called good layers and 
bear confinement well. They are hardy, both as 
mature fowls and when young. They have a 
low rose-comb, which makes them well suited to 
a cold country. They are well feathered and 
attractive in appearance. 

The object of the originators of this breed 



Wyandottes 



65 



was to obtain a compact, blocky, clean-legged 
fowl of good size, one particularly deep in the 
breast, that should produce a good number of 
eggs. The results fully meet these various re- 
quirements. The flesh is of a superior quality, 
being tender and juicy. The proportion of bone 




Fig. 19. A pair of Wliite Wyandottes, young (one-eighth size). 

to the total weight of dressed fowl is compara- 
tively small. There are five varieties : the Silver, 
White, Black, Buff, and Golden. The White is 
perhaps the most popular of any of the varieties. 
They are easier to breed to feather, being pure 
white throughout. However, each variety has 
many ardent admirers. All varieties are without 
doubt most useful farm fowls. 



66 Farm Poultry 

JAVA 

Javas are one of the valuable, useful breeds 
of this country. They are said to have originated 
in Missouri something more than forty years ago. 
It is asserted that they have been bred pure longer 
than any of the recently formed breeds. Javas 
are noted for their good size, being the same size 
as the Plymouth Rocks, and are quick maturing. 
They are of two varieties, the Black and the 
Mottled. It is said that, when cooked, the meat 
of the Black variety does not present the objec- 
tionable dark color of some other black breeds. 
They are good layers, perfectly hardy, and are 
easily reared, endure confinement well, and are 
easily kept in inclosures. It is said that the fowls 
breed quite as true as any of the breeds of this 
class. They are good winter layers, and the 
chicks make good broilers at .an early age. They 
are not raised as extensively as some other breeds 
of this class. They are becoming more popular, 
yet in this respect are still far behind the Ply- 
mouth Eocks and the Wyandottes. The Black 
variety has been the most popular. This variety 
is rich black throughout, with a metallic luster. 
They have single combs, their shanks and toes 
are free from feathers but are nearly black in 
color. The Javas may be recommended as use- 
ful farm fowls. 



Dominiques and Dorkings 67 

DOMINIQUE 

Dominiques are about the size of the Wyan- 
dottes, and are compact and hardy. This is one 
of the oldest American breeds. The origin is 
obscure. The general color is a grayish white, 
with yellow shanks, somewhat like the Plymouth 
Rocks, yet the fowls are lighter in color. For a 
time they were unpopular, but are now receiving- 
attention and are apparently coming into favor. 
They endure confinement well. It is said of 
them that they change little by in-and-in-breed- 
ing. It is also asserted that they suffer com- 
paratively little from uncleanliness. They have 
rose -combs, and endure cold weather well. They 
are excellent table fowls, good mothers, good 
foragers, mature early, and are a most useful 
farm breed. 

DORKING 

The Dorking is preeminently an English breed. 
The fowls approach the ideal for general purposes. 
They are fairly hardy if kept dry, although some- 
what delicate if subjected to dampness, particu- 
larly in cold weather. This is, without doubt, 
one of the oldest of domesticated breeds. It 
is said by some authorities that the fowls were 
taken to England by the Romans. They are low, 
heavy -bodied fowls, with single combs. A dis- 



68 Farm Poultry 

tinguishing mark of the Dorking is the fifth toe. 
They are good layers, persistent and careful sit- 
ters and good mothers. They are excellent farm 
fowls, especially prized for the table. Their 
flesh is light-colored and of fine texture. Some 
even hold that the flesh of the Dorking is supe- 
rior to that of the Game. American breeders 




Fig. 20. Colored Dorking hen, Englisli, (one-eighth size). 

prize the Dorkings highly for quality of flesh, 
and also for the small proportion of bone. They 
are especially noted for a broad, deep breast, and 
the breast meat is distinctly fine in quality. They 
fatten easily, and stand confinement fairly well, 
although a wide range in dry weather suits them 
best. It is said that the hens remain longer with 
the chickens than do the hens of most breeds. 



Dorkings 



69 



The fifth toe is objected to by some breeders. 
It is at least a superfluous or^an so far as use- 
fulness is concerned. It is, however, one of the 
prominent characteristics of the Dorking. Some 




Fig. 21. Flock of Dorkings, Acle, England. 

English writers, notably Wright, assert that those 
varieties of fowls which have five toes are more 
afflicted with bruised feet — "Bumblefoot"— than 
are other varieties. 



70 Farm Poultry 

HOUDAN 

The Houdan is without doubt the most popular 
of French varieties that are bred in the United 
States. The other French breeds are the Creve- 
coeur, the La Fleche, and the Faverolles. The 
latter are new fowls and are practically unknown 
in this country ("see p. 52). The Houdans rank 
among the useful fowls and are noted for the 
production of a goodly number of eggs, and, at 
the same time, furnish a moderate quantity of 
fine flesh. The cock should weigh 7 and the 
hen 6 pounds. Wright says of them : "Better 
table fowls are none, the laying powers are 
great, the chickens fledge and grow faster than 
almost any breed, and the eggs are invariably 
prolific." 

The Houdans are crested, bearded, and have 
the characteristic fifth toe. Notwithstanding these 
objectionable characteristics, they are reared to 
some extent for their useful qualities, but are not 
nearly so popular as the Plymouth Rocks and 
Wyandottes. 

INDIAN GAME 

These are hardy and most excellent table 
fowls. They are considered profitable general- 
purpose fowls; are fairly good layers, mature rap- 
idly and are unexcelled for quality of flesh. The 



Indian Games 



71 



hens are good sitters and excellent mothers. All 
Games are close feathered and muscular, which 
gives them a firm and compact feeling to the 
touch. They weigh very heavily for their appar- 
ent size. The thighs of Games are well-devel- 




Fig. 22. Indian Game cock (one-ninth size). 

oped and appear prominent. The Indian Games 
are represented by two varieties — the Cornish and 
the White — and are most highly prized as gen- 
eral-purpose birds. For general farm use they 
are not so desirable as some of the other breeds 
discussed in this class. The cock weighs 9 
pounds and the hen 6% pounds. 



72 Farm Poultry 

They are considerably more pugnacious than 
the other breeds mentioned in this chapter and 
in certain localities are highly prized on this ac- 
count. It is said that they suffer less from at- 
tacks of hawks than most other breeds. 




Fig. 23. Indian Game hen (one-sixth size). 
EHODE ISLAND BED 

The Ehode Island Reds are considered to be val- 
uable general -purpose fowls. They are somewhat 
smaller than the Plymouth Eocks. A reliable 
breeder* who raises them for utility says : "They 

*C. J. Hampton, Cosad. N. Y. 



Rhode Island Reds 73 

are smaller, more active, and mature earlier than 
the Plymouth Rocks. I think them to be excellent 
layers. In a word, they occupy the middle ground 
between the Leghorns and Plymouth Eocks. 
They are hardy, prolific, and furnish a good qual- 
ity of meat." They do not appear to have so 
uniform color as is desired, but, without doubt, 
a more uniform color will be obtained within a 
few years. As yet the Rhode Island Reds have 
not been recognized as a distinct breed by the 
American Poultry Association. They are, how- 
ever, highly prized as useful farm fowls by many 
breeders. 



CHAPTER V 

FANCY BREEDS 

While the breeds discussed in this arbitrary 
class are more or less useful, yet they are less 
adaptable as farm fowls than those mentioned as 
egg or general-purpose breeds. Fowls of these 
breeds will undoubtedly lay a good number of 
eggs under favorable circumstances, and will pro- 
duce flesh that is excellent for food, yet they are all 
less important for the furnishing of the useful prod- 
ucts than are the varieties mentioned in previous 
chapters. This class of fancy breeds includes 
great variety as to size, form and color. Some 
of the breeds, in the hands of skilful poultrymen, 
would prove quite satisfactory as general-purpose 
fowls, yet, in the hands of the farmer, under 
ordinary farm conditions, they are of minor value. 

Nearly all kinds of fowls may be greatly im- 
proved by skilful breeding and management, and 
undoubtedly these so-called fancy breeds could 
be improved as to useful qualities if given food 
and management conducive to that end. The 
fact remains, nevertheless, that the same skill and 
care transferred to other breeds will give much 

(74) 



Useful Qualities of Fayicij Breeds 75 

greater returns in useful products than can be 
secured from these breeds whose energies have 
been expended in developing a variety of charac- 
teristics that are highly prized for exhibition pur- 
poses but have little value toward the production 
of eggs and meat. 

POLISH 

It is generally conceded that the name Polish, 
or Poland, has no connection with the coun- 
try of that name. Charles Darwin says that 
probably the name was given on account of their 
elevated crest or poll just back of the nostrils on 
the top of the head, where there is an elevation 
in the bony structure. These fowls have been 
bred for many years. It is said that they have 
a known history extending as far back as the 
sixteenth century. They were introduced into 
England about 1835. They are generally con- 
sidered handsome fowls, but are not noted for 
hardiness. They certainly cannot hold their own 
in a promiscuous flock. When bred in small 
flocks and given extra care they are said to pay 
very well. They are only fair layers of small 
white eggs. They cannot withstand wet weather 
well, and require extra care in time of snow or 
rain. 

The very large crests, which obstruct their 
sight to some extent, make them a somewhat easy 



76 Farm Poultry 

prey to hawks in localities where these enemies 
are numerous. In stormy weather the crests are 
liable to become wet and to cause inconvenience 
to the fowls, as well as to make them more 
liable to take cold. On account of their delicacy, 
small size, and moderate egg production, they are 
designated a fancy breed. 

They endure confinement quite well if kept in 
dry and clean houses and yards. Their flesh is 
esteemed for its fine quality. If one desires a 
few handsome fowls, and is willing to give them 
extra care, they will probably prove satisfactory, 
but they are not practical for the poultry keeper 
who desires to realize the largest profit from the 
production of eggs or meat. 

Both sexes have large and handsome crests. 
The comb of Polish fowls is peculiar in form and 
differs materially from the combs of the breeds 
previously described. It is V-shaped or branched 
in form, and is often nearly, or quite, hidden by 
the crest. 

The American Poultry Association recognizes 
eight varieties of Polish fowls, namely: 



Bearded Golden, 


Golden, 


Bearded Silver, 


Silver, 


Bearded White, 


White, 


Buff Laced, 


White-crested Black 



The shanks of all varieties are of a slate or 
bluish color and the skin is white. Probably the 



Description of Games 77 

Silver, Grolden, and Wliite-erested Black are the 
most popular varieties. 

GAME 

The varieties of Games are especially noted 
for the production of flesh of fine quality. Some 
varieties are sometimes recommended as farm 
fowls, but on account of their pugnacious dis- 
position and their deficiency in egg production it 
is extremely doubtful whether they will prove as 
useful as the breeds discussed under the head 
of general-purpose fowls (Chap. IV). 

For convenience of discussion. Games are usu- 
ally divided into two fairly well-defined classes, the 
Pit Games and the Exhibition Games. The Amer- 
ican Poultry Association still further divides the 
Exhibition Games into two classes and makes a 
class of "Oriental Games." 

The Pit Games usually are not placed among 
the standard varieties, yet their general char- 
acteristics are quite as distinct as are those of 
the so-called standard breeds. Pit Games are 
short -legged, compact, stout fowls, with an abun- 
dance of tail feathers. They are hardy and ma- 
ture early, but do not produce eggs in sufficient 
number to meet the requirements of the farmer. 

Exhibition Games are taller and not so com- 
pact or strong as the Pits and are bred mostly 



78 Farm Poultry 

for exhibition purposes. They are among the 
most popular of exhibition or fancy fowls. The 
classes of these fowls are usually well filled at the 
large poultry shows and fairs. They are called 
good sitters and good mothers, traits which, in 
general, are common to all Games. There are 
eight recognized varieties of the Exhibition Games, 
and of these the Black-breasted Red and the 
Brown Red are probably the most popular. 

Of the Oriental Games, the Cornish and the 
White Indian Games are bred most. These are 
fine -looking fowls. They are much heavier than 
the Pit or Exhibition Games. They are particu- 
larly strong in the shoulders and thighs. They 
are full in the breast and are highly esteemed 
for food. The Malay and the Sumatra Games are 
other breeds of this class, but are not as popular 
as the Cornish and the White. The Games of 
this class are sometimes used to cross on other 
fowls for the purpose of infusing vigor and of 
improving the quality of the flesh. 

SILKY 

The Silkies are not bred to any extent in this 
country, although in England they are in consider- 
able favor. Their great peculiarity is that their 
feathers are not webbed, and when in good con- 
dition present a fluffy, loose appearance. Stand- 



SilMes, Sultans and Frizzles 79 

ing well out from the body in all directions, the 
plumage causes them to appear much heavier 
than they really are. They are compactly -built 
birds, and are reared chiefly for their odd appear- 
ance, and for hatching the eggs of other breeds. 
They are said to make good mothers for tender 
little chickens on account of their light weight 
and soft, downy feathers. They have irregular 
rose-combs of a dark color. The comb and face 
present a dark, purplish appearance, in marked 
contrast to other varieties of fowls. 

SULTAN 

Sultans were taken into England from Turkey 
about fifty years ago. They were not brought to 
America until many years later. On account of 
their crest they somewhat resemble the Polish, 
particularly the Bearded Polish. Their shanks 
and toes are heavily feathered. They are reared 
chiefly for their peculiar appearance. No particu- 
lar claim is made as to usefulness. They thrive 
well in small inclosures, and are gentle and readily 
be'come pets. 

FRIZZLE 

Frizzles are peculiar fowls, and are reared wholly 
for their unique appearance, their feathers curving 
upward and backward at the ends. The curve is 



80 Farm Poultry 

most pronounced in the hackle feathers and feath- 
ers of the back. Any color is recognized. Single 
combs are preferred. The chief requisite of Friz- 
zles is that the feathers turn upward and toward 
the head. On account of this peculiarity of the 
feathers, they do not well withstand unfavorable 
weather. They should not be classed among the 
most useful breeds. They are not bred exten- 
sively. Without doubt they might be made more 
useful than they now are should skilful breed- 
ers give them some attention. However, the fact 
that they are not prepared to withstand the hard- 
ships that more useful breeds endure will tend to 
prevent them from becoming other than fancy 
fowls. 

THE KUMPLESS FOWLS 

These are distinguished by the entire absence 
of a tail. In fact, that part of the body which 
in other breeds produces the tail is almost as 
smooth and even as the breast. These fowls are 
of various colors. While they have been bred 
for many years, yet no one has succeeded in 
establishing a well -fixed variety. The Rumpless 
fowls have been bred for many years on farms 
in New York and Pennsylvania as general -pur- 
pose fowls, although they have never become very 
popular. 



Description of Bantams 81 

BANTAM 

The Bantams are purely fancy or ornamental 
breeds. There are many varieties. While some 
breeders maintain that they can be profitably kept 
for eggs and for the table, yet on account of their 
diminutive size they cannot compete with the 
larger breeds. As ponies represent the chil- 
dren's horse and are in a way ornamental, so do 
the Bantams occupy a similar position among 
fowls. They are often reared as children's pets 
and undoubtedly afford a great deal of pleasure 
for both young and old. Among the most com- 
mon and popular varieties of Bantams may be 
mentioned the Black, Wliite, Buff, and Partridge 
Cochin; Dark and Light Brahma; Golden and 
Silver Sebright ; White-crested and White Pol- 
ish; Buff Laced, Japanese, and many varieties 
of Games. Probably the Golden and the Silver 
Sebright and the Buff Cochin are quite as pop- 
ular as any. 

For exhibition purposes the plumage and form 
of these miniature representatives correspond 
closely to the varieties of larger fowls. Small 
size is preferred. There seems to be a marked 
tendency on the part of some varieties of Ban- 
tams to revert to the larger fowls from which 
they were derived. 



CHAPTER VI 

BUILDINGS FOB FOWLS: LOCATION, PLANS AND 
CONSTRUCTION 

The location of poultry houses is often thought 
to be of minor importance when compared with 
the location of other farm buildings. This may be 
true when but few fowls are to be kept for the 
sole purpose of supplying the home table, but 
the profit derived from keeping these few fowls is 
frequently very much less than it would be if the 
same care and thought were given them that is 
devoted to other farm stock. 

LOCATION OF BUILDINGS 

In selecting a site for poultry houses and 
yards, three important points should be con- 
stantly borne in mind: (1) health of the fowls, 
(2) convenience of the attendant, and (3J liabil- 
ity to vermin and other poultry enemies. 

Health of the foiuls. — As cleanliness and free- 
doxn from moisture are two highly essential con- 
ditions of successful poultry- keeping, the natural 
surroundings which strongly influence them should 

(82) 



Necessity for Thorough Drainage 83 

receive first consideration. A dry, porous soil not 
only insures a suitable yard or run, whenever the 
weather is favorable for the fowls to take out- 
of-door exercise, but also controls to some ex- 
tent the amount of moisture in the buildings. If 
the highest degree of success is to be attained, 
cleanliness and freedom from moisture must be 
secured. Partial success or entire failure is un- 
doubtedly more frequently due to filthy houses 
and yards, together with dampness, than to any 
other causes. Particularly is this true with those 
whose chief interests lie in other directions, and 
who, consequently, more or less neglect their 
smaller poultry interests during certain portions 
of the year. If it is desired to keep poultry on 
heavy or wet soils, the land should be thoroughly 
underdrained. The removal of the surplus water 
from the yards or runs very much lessens the 
labor of keeping them clean, particularly during 
the growing season. During the summer months 
a yard or run of loose sand or gravelly soil will 
require comparatively little labor to keep it clean, 
while a similar one on a heavy and impervious 
clay will demand continual attention, and even 
this will not always suffice to keep the yards in 
a satisfactory condition. A heavy soil not only 
retains nearly all of the droppings on the surface, 
but by retarding the percolation in ti.mes of fre- 
quent rains soon gives a coating of filth. This 



84 



Farm Poultry 



is particularly true of those parts of the yard most 
frequented by the fowls. 

A slightly raised elevation is to be preferred, 
particularly if the ground slopes gently on all 
sides from the building. This will insure good 
surface drainage in times of heavy showers and 




Fig. 24. A poultry house — Massachusetts Agricultural College. 



whenever the ground is frozen, 
what light or porous soil that 
underdrained is to be preferred, 
inferred that success may not 
somewhat heavier soils if they 
underdrained. Any good potato 
urally well drained will not be 
account of excessive moisture. 



While a some- 
is naturally well 
it should not be 
be attained on 
are thoroughly 
soil that is nat- 
objectionable on 



Sunshine Desirable 



85 



Another important consideration is the admis- 
sion to the houses and yards of abundant sun- 
shine. Fowls, like other classes of live stock, 
do not thrive so well when deprived of sunshine. 
This is particularly true of laying fowls during 
the cold winter months. The houses, yards or 
runs should be so planned, if possible, as to give 




CRUSHE.D 
SMEJ.LS 



[ 



NESTS UNDCR BOARDS 
PERCHES 



|< • 13 FT 

Fig. 25. Ground plan of poultry house — Massacliusetts Agricultural College. 

them a southern or southeastern exposure (Figs. 
24, 25). Many buildings for domesticated animals 
are so constructed that they do not admit sufficient 
light and air for the best health of the occupants. 
It has been found by experience that animals 
have a somewhat whiter skin and present a 
somewhat more delicate appearance when de- 
prived of direct sunlight than when they are 



S6 Farm Poultry 

permitted to bask in the sunshine at will. This 
is frequently noticed in dairy cows, in which a 
yellow skin is so highly prized. 

Poultrymen turn to good advantage all the 
sunshine they can secure in the winter time in 
order to maintain a high standard of vigor and 
to stimulate egg -production. It is an advan- 
tage to have the yard on the south side of the 
house, in order that the fowls may have the ben- 
efit of the first dry ground in the early spring. 
It frequently occurs in localities where snow is 
more or less abundant that the ground on the 
south side of the building will be dry many days 
before that on the north side is entirely free from 
frost and dampness. The relative location of 
the house and yard is, therefore, of sufficient 
importance to demand one's best thought and 
care in planning. 

Convenience. — The poultry business, if prop- 
erly conducted, necessitates close attention to 
many details, each one, perhaps, somewhat in- 
significant in itself, yet of so much importance 
when considered in the aggregate that success or 
failure may depend on its performance or neg- 
lect. In a general way, the labor is not con- 
sidered heavy or burdensome, but constant vigi- 
lance and attention are necessary. The mere 
fact that there are many small details requiring 
attention, demands that convenient houses and 



Convenience of Appliances 87 

yards be built, since a little inconvenience each 
day, or perhaps several times a day, will, in 
time, create an unnecessary expense of consid- 
erable magnitude. Economy of labor requires 
convenience of appliances, and nowhere is this 
better illustrated than in the poultry business. 
It should also be borne in mind that whenever 
labor may be performed conveniently it is less 
likely to be neglected than when it is performed 
with difficulty. While one should not enter into 
the poultry business with the thought of neglect- 
ing any of its details, or to plan for any but 
thoi-ough work, yet, knowing the shortcomings 
of human operations and tendencies, one will 
fail to make the most of his opportunities if he 
does not consider the inclinations of those who 
are expected to perform the work. To do the 
work thoroughly will require a little attention 
several times a day. The fowls must be fed and 
watered, houses must be kept clean and other 
attentions given. In nearly all kinds of agricul- 
tural work the labor account is one of the great- 
est items of expense in conducting th^ business. 
A convenient arrangement, of houses is illus- 
trated in Fig. 26. The attendant may go from 
one house to another, passing through each pen 
without going through yards, which would neces- 
sitate opening and closing gates. It should be 
observed that each house is provided with two 



Farm Poultry 



■<? 

*^ 



— 33' 




k-a Rods- 



+2rX-4te-House. 



V- 



■-I 






J2'«40 



House. K' 



Fig. 26. A good plan for poultry houses and yards. Each house 
will accommodate 80 or 100 fowls. The yards are planted with fruit trees. 

doors, in order that the poultryman may enter 
one and pass out at the other in less time than 
would be required if but one door were provided. 
This arrangement, however, may not be found to 
be applicable on many farms, particularly where 
but one small house is needed. 

Vermin, etc. — Eats and mice often become seri- 
ous pests in poultry houses, particularly if grain is 



Enemies of Poultry 89 

kept in these buildings. For the same reason, it 
is generally best to locate the poultry houses some 
distance from other farm buildings, particularly 
from those in which grain is stored. Every farmer 
well knows how difficult it is to store grain for 
any considerable length of time and keep it en- 
tirely free from these pests. While convenience 
of access is of prime importance, yet often 
it is best to make a slight sacrifice of labor in 
order to secure the greatest freedom from rats 
and mice. Isolated buildings will probably give 
the greatest satisfaction in the end. Mice will 
probably not be troublesome in poultry houses 
unless grain is stored in these buildings, but rats 
are likely to give more or less trouble, particularly 
in brooder houses and in pens or yards frequented 
by young chickens. 

In some localities crows, hawks, skunks and 
other poultry enemies give some trouble, and 
one must plan to meet these annoyances ac- 
cording to his best judgment. It may be neces- 
sary in some cases to cover entirely small yards, 
in which young chickens are kept, with netting, 
in order to protect them properly from hawks 
and crows. A covered run for little chickens is 
described in the chapter on feeding. Skunks 
may be excluded by proper fencing. Wherever 
vermin are numerous enough to give serious an- 
noyance, all possible ingenuity should be exer- 



90 Farm Poultry 

cised to exclude them before resorting to destruc- 
tion by poison. While poison may sometimes be 
safely used, the danger of poisoning the fowls 
and other domestic animals is so great that one 
is not warranted in using it except as a last 
resort. 

CONSTKUCTION OF HOUSES 

In designing poultry houses, the form is nec- 
essarily one of the first points to be determined. 
While the design is under consideration, the 
essentials of a farm poultry house should be 



^ 







Fig. 27. A double house — Pennsylvania State College. 

continually kept in mind. The chief essentials 
may be enumerated as warmth, dryness, light 
and cheapness. In order to assure proper light- 
ing, it is often found necessary to deviate some- 



Forms of Souses 91 

what from the form that would give the greatest 
warmth for the least cost. In all poultry houses 
in which fowls are confined during the cold win- 
ter months, some provision should be made to 




Fig. 28. Ground plan of double hoi;se — Pennsylvania State College. 

admit sunlight on the floor, where the fowls 
may congregate. In order to accomplish this to 
the best advantage, it is necessary to have a con- 
siderable frontage toward the south or southeast. 
During December, January and February it is 
most difficult, yet most essential, to have the di- 
rect sunlight. Square or octagon houses inclose 
the most space for the money expended, and 
also give opportunity for warm houses, which 
may be constructed cheaply, but in order to se- 
cure sunlight it is necessary to build the house 
considerably longer than wide. For economy, 
it is also desirable to build a house longer 
than is necessary for one pen or flock of fowls. 
A long and comparatively narrow house, with 
light partitions constructed largely of netting, 
may be erected for considerably less expense than 



92 Farm Poultry 

two or more separate houses having the same 
capacity. That is, it is much clieaper to con- 
struct a partition across a narrow poultry house 
than to construct two end walls. Then, too, ad- 
joining poultry pens, connected by an easy swing- 
ing door, are more convenient for the attendant 
than two separate houses. The arrangement of 
having two or more pens in one building is of 
the utmost importance where warm houses must 
be provided to guard against frosted combs and 
wattles. See Figs. 27 and 28. 

In constructing poultry houses, the material 
to be used and the manner of building will de- 
pend largely upon the material at hand. In one 
locality certain materials may be comparatively 
cheap, while in other localities the same articles 
may be relatively more expensive than other ma- 
terial equally suitable for the purpose. In select- 
ing material, it should be borne in mind that the 
building is to provide a warm, dry, well -venti- 
lated, well -lighted home for the fowls. If these 
requirements are satisfactorily complied with, it 
will be necessary to provide roof and side walls 
that are impervious to moisture and relatively 
poor conductors of heat. Suitable arrangements 
for ventilating and lighting the building must be 
provided, and some provision should be made to 
exclude the moisture from beneath, particularly 
if the soil is damp. 




Fig. 29. Poultry houses — West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 




Flu. 30. Poultry houses and yards — Massachusetts Agricultural College. 



94 Farm Poultry 

Size of building. — The size of the building 
required will depend largely upon the number of 
fowls to be kept. While fowls of some breeds 
require more room than the same number of in- 
dividuals of other breeds, yet the number is of 
more importance than the breed in determin- 
ing the size of the building. The noted egg 
breeds are much more active than the heavier, 
slow -moving breeds, and therefore require quite 
as much room, although in weight they are far 
inferior. 

The climate will determine to a considerable 
extent the size of the buildings. If the climate 
is mild so that it is not necessary to keep the 
fowls confined within doors much of the time, 
smaller houses will suffice than in colder latitudes 
where the fowls are kept in the house for weeks 
at a time. In the latitude of New York city and 
farther north, where fowls are expected to be 
kept within doors a considerable portion of the 
year, five square feet of floor space per fowl will 
suffice for most breeds, and it will be none too 
much for best results. This may be taken as 
a general rule when the house is to be kept in 
good condition as regards cleanliness and venti- 
lation. If the houses are to be more or less 
neglected, considerably more space should be 
provided. 

It is somewhat more difficult to give a good 



Ventilation 



95 



working rule as regards air space or cubical con- 
tents of the building. Under good average con- 
ditions, 8 or 10 cubic feet per pound of live 
weight will perhaps be quite satisfactory. The 
amount of air space, of course, will depend upon 
the ventilation, and also upon the sources of con- 
tamination, aside from the fowls themselves. If 



^ 


f 


j^uL'^y-^m' St A . 






^^y 




Ifl 









Fig. 31. Poultry houses — Cornell University. 



manure is allowed to accumulate and the litter 
becomes damp, the air will 'become impure. 
Other things being equal, it will become im- 
pure sooner in small houses than in large ones. 
The above rule as regards air space has given 
good satisfaction under favorable conditions and 
may be used in the absence of more definite infor- 
mation derived from actual experience. 



96 Farm Poultry 

Foundation,— WhQu permanent houses are to 
be built, it is undoubtedly most economical, in 
the long run, to erect them on foundations made 
of brick, stone or concrete. Such foundations 
should extend . into the ground below the frost 
line, should be vermin-proof, and so constructed 
as to exclude drafts of air. Some provision 
should be made to give thorough ventilation 
during the warm seasons of the year, if the 
floor and its supports are to be constructed of 
wood. 

It is not safe to inclose wooden floor supports 
with solid walls of masonry on account of the 
liability of "dry rot" to destroy the supports 
and even to ruin the floor. A free ventilation 
should be provided by means of openings in the 
foundation walls of all buildings when the floors 
are placed within a few feet of the ground. 

When wooden floors are constructed near the 
ground, it is essential to arrange the foundation 
walls so that rats cannot gain access underneath 
the floor. This may be readily accomplished by 
covering windows or openings in the walls with 
flne-meshed wire screens. Close-fitting blinds may 
be used to close the windows and prevent draft 
underneath the house during the colder part of 
the year. If suitable stones are at hand for the 
construction of foundation walls they undoubtedly 
may be used to good advantage. When neither 



Concrete Walls 97 

brick nor stone is readily available the founda- 
tion walls may be made of grout or concrete, 
provided small stone or gravel can be readily 
obtained. On many farms small field stones, 
which prove a hindrance to cultiyation, may be 
used to good advantage. 

Walls of this description may be constructed 
without the aid of skilled labor and at a very 
moderate expense. In order to construct such 
walls satisfactorily, it is necessary to dig narrow 
trenches below the frost line. A simple and 
effective manner of proceeding is as follows: 
drive rows of stakes into the ground, one row 
on each side of the trench, and nail boards on 
the inside of the stakes. The boards are used to 
hold the concrete in place until the cement hard- 
ens. Old, rough or uneven boards may be used, 
except for the top ones, which should have the 
upper edges straight. The upper boards should 
be placed level, as they will determine the top 
of the wall. The stakes which hold the boards 
should be firm enough to withstand the pressure 
of the stones and cement without yielding very 
much. If the ground is so hard that stakes 
cannot be driven readily, tall stakes may be used 
and supported by fastening the tops together as 
shown in Fig. 32. Place a few layers of stone 
in the bottom of the trench, then put on some 
thin cement, and pound down by means of a 



98 



Farm Poultry 



light pounder. This operation should be repeated 
until the desired height is reached. The top 
may be smoothed off with a ditching spade or 
trowel, using the top board as a guide. 

The wall should be left until the cement is 
hard, when the building may be placed upon it. 




Pig. 32.' iVIethod of constructing a concrete wall. 

The boards at the side may be removed at any 
time after the cement becomes hard. If old 
boards have been used at the bottom it will not 
pay to remove them. A concrete wall of this 
kind may be constructed of cheap material and 
with ordinary farm labor. 

Side walls.— The side walls of poultry houses 
are usually built of wood, which is a compara- 



Kinds of Side Walls 99 

tively cheap material and is a poor conductor 
of heat. The side walls are constructed in va- 
rious ways. For convenience of discussion the 
various kinds of walls may be placed under two 
heads: solid walls and hollow walls. In cold 
countries the hollow walls, or those with a dead 
air space, are to be preferred, because of their 
greater warmth and freedom from moisture. In 
moderate or warm climates solid walls will un- 
doubtedly answer every purpose. 

For latitudes south of New York, solid walls, 
constructed of one or two thicknesses of inch 
boards, will prove quite satisfactory, particularly 
in the hands of the skilled poultryman. The 
amateur will undoubtedl}^ prefer the hollow 
walls, as imperfect appliances and buildings are 
greater hindrances to him than they would be to 
the skilled and experienced man. Buildings with 
hollow side walls are cooler in summer, warmer in 
winter, and are not so likely to be covered with 
frost in severe weather as solid walls, particularly 
if the solid wall consists of but one or two thick- 
nesses of boards. If the side walls and roof 
become more or less frosted in severe weather, 
dampness results whenever the temperature mod- 
erates sufficiently to melt the frost. A cheap and 
efficient wall for the sides and ends of the build- 
ing may be constructed of two thicknesses of rough 
inch lumber. Both thicknesses of this siding 



100 



Farm Poultry 



-Tbx Paj36r. 




should be put on vertically, with a good quality 
of tarred building paper between. When walls 
of this nature are con- 
structed, it is best to nail 
on the inner siding first. 
On the outside of these 
boards put a coat of the 
tarred paper in such a 
manner that the whole sur- 
face is thoroughly covered, 
providing for a liberal lap 
wherever the edges meet. 
The object of this tarred Method of building a 

•.•IT • i poultry house with 

buildmg paper is to pre- ^^^.^ ^.^^^ ^,ns, oe- 

vent drafts of air from 

penetrating the side walls. 

See Fig. 33. The boards 

of the outside covering 

should be put over the 

building paper in such a 

way that they will break 

ioints with „ 

" C e tn e rii. 

the inner Broken stom- 

boarding. 

If boards of a uniform width 

can be selected for this pur- '•■,'. \..,' / > 

pose, the ease of breaking ^ '^ 

joints will be greatly increased. A wall of this 

thickness of inch boards, with building paper, 



Fig. 33. 



ment floor, and a roof 
that is impervious to 
wind. 




Hollow Side Walls 



101 



constructed as previously described, will prove 
satisfactory under ordinary conditions. It should 
be remembered, however, that these w^alls will be 
covered somewhat with frost in severe weather, 
particularly if the houses are well filled with fowls. 




Fig. 34. 
Method of constructing a poultry 
house -with a hollow side wall 
and a dead air space between 
ceiling and roof. 



^^^^T-^S 



A hollow wall may be constructed at about the 
same expense as the solid wall just described. 
One method of constructing a cheap and effi- 
cient poultry house having hollow side walls is 
shown in Fig. 34. The sill may be of 2x8 or 2x6 
scantling, laid flat on the foundation wall. A 2x2 
scantling or strip is nailed on top of the sill, at 



102 Farm Poultry 

its outer edge. This gives the width of the space 
or hollow in the side walls. The plate may be 
constructed of a 2x3 or 2x4 scantling, placed 
edgewise. The boards which constitute the side 
walls are nailed to the sides of the plate and 
to the sides of the strip which was nailed to the 
top of the sill. Rough lumber may be used for 
the side walls, if strict economy is desired. The 
inner boarding should be nailed on first and cov- 
ered on the outside with tarred building paper. 
This paper will be within the wall when it is 
completed. It is preferable to fasten the paper 
in place by means of thin strips, laths, pieces of 
thin boards, etc., rather than to depend wholly 
on the heads of tacks or nails. The outside board- 
ing may now be put on, and the cracks between the 
boards covered with inexpensive battens, if they 
are secured with small nails at frequent intervals. 
If cheapness is of considerable importance, the 
ordinary building laths may be used, and will 
answer the purpose admirably, although some- 
what heavier battens will be more durable. A 
mistake is sometimes made in selecting heavy 
battens which will not draw down by nailing as 
well as lighter ones. The battens on the outside 
boarding and the tarred building paper on the 
inside boarding make two coverings, each of 
which is impervious to wind, with an air space 
between them. 



Economy of Roof Construction 



103 



i?(?o/5.— Various kinds of material are used in 
the construction of roofs for poultry houses, al- 
though shingles are more generally employed than 
anything else. Tin, steel, and various kinds of 
roofing paper are used, although they are more 
or less objectionable on account of the great heat 



96 Sq.Ft, 



<f) 



72 



Fig. 35. Cross section of a poultry house with a gable roof, 96 square feet. 

radiated in the building during the hot summer 
months. 

Roofs of various forms are constructed. The 
gable and lean-to or shed roofs are used most. 
A shed roof may be constructed with a trifle 
less labor than a gable roof, yet it is not nearly 
so economical in the matter of space as the latter. 
At first thought a shed roof may seem to include 



104 



Farm Poultry 



the most space, but upon closer analysis it will 
be found that the gable roof, other things being 
equal, includes considerably more space. To 
further illustrate, we will suppose that boards 
twelve feet long are to be used for the side walls 
in constructing a house twelve feet wide, the roof 
to be one -third pitch. If the gable form be used 



Fig. 36. 
Cross section of a 
poultry house with 
a shed roof, 72 
square feet. 




the building would then have side walls six feet 
high, and the area included in cross section would 
be 96 square feet. See Fig. 35. 

If the shed form of roof be used and the same 
material as described above for side walls, but 72 
feet in cross section would be included. See Fig. 
36. It is undoubtedly true that the shed roof may 
be constructed at a trifle less expense for labor 



Method of Preventing Drafts 105 

than the gable roof, although it Tvill be found 
necessary to use somewhat heavier rafters than 
would suffice for the gable roof. 

Whatever form of roof be used, it should be so 
constructed that it will effectually exclude all di*afts 
of air. Shingled roofs, as ordinarily constructed, do 
not sufficiently exclude drafts. In order to make 
such roofs satisfactory it is necessary to cover 
the roof boards with building paper before the 
shingles are laid, or to prowle an inner ceiling 
for the poultry house. Either of these will ex- 
clude the drafts, but both are more or less ob- 
jectionable. Each one must choose what seems 
to him to be the lesser of the two e^'ils. The 
building paper underneath the shingles prevents 
the shingles from drying as readily as they other- 
wise would, and, consequently, materially short- 
ens the life of the roof. Experience has taught 
that the shingled roofs that diy quickest last 
longest. The ceihng on the inside of the ordi- 
nary shingled roofs is objectionable on account 
of the additional expense. 

Floors. — Some successful poultry keepers pre- 
fer earth floors to artificial ones, but as these are 
somewhat more difficult to keep clean man}' prefer 
an artificial floor constructed of wood or cement. 
TVooden floors are generally used, although they 
are somewhat more expensive to construct, and 
it is often neeessaiy to replace them every few 



106 Farm Poultry 

years. The "submerged cement floor'' undoubt- 
edly approaches the ideal. In constructmg this 
floor the ground should be slightly excavated so 
that the top of the cement floor when finished 
will be a trifle lower than that desired for the 
fowls. The cement may be placed directly on 
the ground if the earth is firm. If the earth is 
not firm it should be further excavated and filled 
with stone, which should be thoroughly pounded 
before applying the cement. See Fig. 33. After 
the cement hardens, sand or gravel may be used 
to cover it to a depth of from one to three 
inches. Some poultrymen prefer to place the 
cement floor somewhat higher than the surface of 
the ground in order to secure good drainage, de- 
pending on litter to protect the fowls from coming 
in contact with the cement when the weather is 
cold. A cement floor properly constructed is a 
most excellent protection against rats and mice. 
Windows. — For the colder latitudes, windows 
should not be large, nor more than one to every 
ten feet in length for a house twelve feet wide. 
These should be placed on the south side and 
at such distance from the floor as to allow the 
greatest possible amount of sunshine to fall upon 
the floor during the cold winter months. Of 
course the size and form of the windows will 
determine largely their location, but if ordinary 
windows, having from four to eight lights of a 



Windows 107 

size not larger than 8x10 inches, are used, it will 
be found very satisfactory to place them about six- 
teen or eighteen inches from the floor. At noon, 
during the shortest days of the year, in the lati- 
tude of New York city, the sun's rays make about 
the same angle with the horizon as that of a quar- 
ter pitch roof; that is, an object one foot high 
would cast a shadow two feet long. Then, if the 
bottom of the window be placed eighteen inches 
from the floor, the sunshine on the floor will be 
three feet from the side of the building in which 
the window is placed. In cold latitudes it is a 
common and somewhat serious mistake to use 
more windows than are absolutely needed for the 
health and convenience of the fowls. While sun- 
light is desirable, many windows make the build- 
ing cold, unless they are covered with shutters or 
heavy curtains, during the severest weather. It 
has been found that windows radiate about four 
times as much heat as the same area of side wails 
in average well -constructed dwelling houses. If 
warm houses are desired large window surface 
should be avoided. A coat of whitewash on the 
interior will aid materially in making the build- 
ing light. 

Sliding windows are preferred on many ac- 
counts to those that open by means of hinges. 
They can be partially opened for ventilation in 
warm weather, and during the extreme heat of 



108 



Farm Poultry 



summer they may be left entirely open. The 
opening should be covered with poultry netting 
to confine the fowls, and if the mesh is fine 




Fig. 37. Window of poultry house protected by a wooden shutter 
for Slimmer use. 

enough to exclude the English sparrow, annoy- 
ance is sometimes avoided. 

Comparatively cheap window shades may be 



Windows and Ventilators 109 

made of thin matched lumber nailed together so 
as to make a solid shutter. This shade or shut- 
ter may be hinged to the side of the poultry 
house just above the window with loose hinges, 
the lower edge supported by a wire, as shown in 
Fig. 37. Such shades exclude the sun and serve 
as a protection from the heat during the warm- 
est part of the year when the windows are left 
open. The loose hinges permit of easy removal 
for winter storage. 

Ventilation. — During the warm weather the 
open windows will afford sufficient ventilation, 
but during the colder months some means of ven- 
tilating the building should be provided, aside 
from that afforded by the doors and windows. 
Many ventilators have been planned for poultry 
houses, but all ventilators that are in continu- 
ous operation either give too much ventilation 
during the coldest weather or not enough during 
the warm, still days. As a rule, they furnish 
too much ventilation during the cold nights, 
and not enough during the sunny part of the 
day. Any system of ventilation that will fully 
meet the requirements of the busy farmer or 
poultryman must be simple and readily con- 
trolled by the attendant. Ventilators are not 
needed in the severest weather, but during the 
warm days of spring and whenever the tempera- 
ture is above the freezing point during the winter 



110 



Farm Poultry 



and early spring, some ventilation should be 
given. Farmers and poultry men should aim to 
ventilate their poultry houses as they ventilate 
their own sleeping apartments. Little or no 
ventilation is needed at night during the severest 
weather, but during the day, when the fowls are 
more or less actively engaged in scratching in 
the litter, the house should be ventilated just as 




Fig. 3S. A good ventilator. 

regularly as a sleeping apartment should be aired 
when not occupied or when the occupant is ac- 
tively engaged in light manual labor. Houses 
with single walls will become quite frosty on 
the inside during the severest weather, and this 
will cause more or less dampness whenever the 
temperature is sufficiently high to thaw the frost 
from the walls and roof. At this time ventilation 
is most needed and may be supplied by placing 



Ventilators 111 

a ventilator in the highest part of the roof, 
which will permit the heated air to escape. It 
is rarely necessary to provide special means for 
cold air to enter, as there is usually a sufficient 
number of cracks about doors and windows to 
admit cold air if means be provided for the lighter 
air to escape. Fig. 38 illustrates the construc- 
tion of a cheap and effective ventilator. This 
may be readily closed and opened by means of 
cords or chains as the attendant passes through 
the house. 



CHAPTER VII 

BUILDINGS: INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS AND YARDS 

Perches, — While the construction of the perches 
is perhaps of less importance than many other 
details of a well-equipped poultry house, yet one 
should be able to give a reason for construct- 
ing each part of the house in a particular way, 
and it will be necessary to give considerable 
thought to the planning and arrangement of 
minor features. In the construction of perches 
two objects should be kept in mind: (1) the 
perches should be convenient for the fowls and 
(2) so arranged that the droppings may be read- 
ily caught without falling to the floor or soiling 
the litter. For heavy- bodied fowls the perches 
should not be more than 2% or 3 feet from the 
floor, and all should be of the same height. 
Many fowls prefer to perch far above the ground 
in order, without doubt, to be more secure from 
their enemies. It may be accepted as natural 
for fowls to perch at a considerable distance 
from the ground in order that they may be better 
protected from skunks, minks, foxes, etc. In the 
poultry house, from which these enemies are ex- 

(112) 



Construction of Perches 113 

eluded, however, low perches are considered just 
as safe and much better for heavy-bodied fowls. 
More or less clumsy, heavy-bodied fowls ascend 
to high perches with difficulty, and are likely to 
be injured in alighting from any considerable 
elevation. Convenient ladders or walks may be 
constructed, which w^ill enable the fowls to ap- 
proach the perches without great effort, but there 
are always times when clumsy fowls will attempt 
to fly to the floor, although injury to themselves 
may result. Leghorns and other egg breeds may 
safely perch somewhat higher than the Asiatics, 
and if the buildings are well constructed this 
may be an advantage in cold weather, as the 
fowls will undoubtedly find it somewhat warmer 
on high perches than on low ones. Only mov- 
able perches should be constructed. A 2 x 3 
scantling set edgewise, with the upper corners 
rounded, answers every purpose and makes a 
satisfactory perch. Poles or narrow boards may 
be ' used, but whatever material is selected the 
perches should be so constructed that they will 
be firm and will not tip or rock when fowls 
alight on them. A small scantling is easy to 
secure firmly and also to clean and to disin- 
fect. Underneath the perches a smooth platform 
should always be placed to catch the droppings. 
This is recommended for two reasons; first, it 
is much easier to keep the house clean and free 



114 Farm Poultry 

from objectionable odors if the droppings are 
easily removed; and, second, the droppings are 
valuable as a fertilizer and should not be mixed 
with the litter on the floor. The distance from 
the perch to the platform will depend somewhat 
on the size of the fowls and on the implement 




Fig. 39. Movable perches with board platform underneath to catch droppings. 

used in removing the droppings. It will also 
depend on the form of platform constructed. 

The distance between the perches and a level 
platform should not be great enough to permit 
the fowls to walk on the platform underneath the 
perches. If a broad iron shovel with a tolerably 
straight handle is used, the perches need not be 
more than from five to eight inches from a level 



Perches and Nests 115 

platform. It is desirable to have the platform 
some distance from the floor, in order that the 
fowls may occupy the floor space nnderneath the 
platform. This will permit the construction of 
perches, and, at the same time, will allow the 
fowls to use all of the floor space. The perches 
may be supported by brackets secured to the 
side wall, as shown in Fig. 39. 

Nests. — In the construction of nests in poultry 
houses, at least three points should constantly be 
kept in mind. First, the nest should be situated 
in a place which is more or less dark; second, 
it should be readily accessible to the fowls from 
more than one side; and, third, it should be 
constructed in such a way that it can be readily 
seen, easily cleaned, and thoroughly disinfected. 
Since it is important to give the fowls as much 
floor space as possible, it is usually best to have 
the nest attached in some manner to the side or 
end walls of the building. In a general way it 
may be said that the number of fow^ls which a 
poultry house wall accommodate depends on the 
floor space and air space which the house con- 
tains. Anything, therefore, that unnecessarily 
occupies floor space will diminish the capacity 
of the house. Various plans of arranging nests 
have been adopted, and it is difficult and probably 
impossible to say which is the best. Each has 
advantages and disadvantages. A somewhat sim- 



116 Farm Poultry 

pie and easy plan of arranging nests when the 
perches are placed not more than 2% or 3 feet 
from the floor, is as follows: underneath the 
platform, which should always be underneath the 
perches, as described above, the nests are placed 
in a row on the floor. From the front edge of 
the platform to the floor, in front of the nests, 
a tight board partition is constructed. This board 
partition is opened by means of a long door, 
hinged either at the top or bottom. ' In either 
case the lower edge of the door should be about 
level with the top of the nests. A small open- 
ing at one end of the door will admit fowls 
to the nests. This arrangement secures dark- 
ness for the nests, plenty of room for the 
fowls to approach the nests from two or three 
sides, and the nests are readily accessible for 
cleaning, gathering eggs, etc. Some of the dis- 
advantages of this plan are that the nests oc- 
cupy considerable floor space and the fowls are 
sometimes inclined to deposit their eggs on the 
floor back of the nests. It is desirable to arrange 
the nests so that they may be approached from 
more than one side for the following reason: in 
flocks of fowls of any considerable size there 
are usually individuals more or less aggressive in 
character, that seem to delight in exercising their 
mastery over others; such birds, when seeking 
a nest, will almost invariably drive others off 



Nests , and Egg - ea ting 



117 



the nests rather than take equally as conve- 
nient a nest which is unoccupied. If the nests 
can be approached from only one side, one hen 
in trying to drive the other off, which she will 
eventually accomplish, will force the occupant 
to spring from the nest suddenly. This may 




Fig. 40. Perches unci nests, — West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 

cause the eggs to be thrown violently to one side, 
and often a broken egg is the result. 

The vice of egg- eating is undoubtedly largely 
caused by eggs being broken accidentally, or by 
frozen eggs. If the nests can be placed in partial 
darkness, the habit of egg-eating should be reduced 



118 Farm Poultry 

to a minimum. While it may not suffice to cure the 
habit when once well formed, yet it should pre- 
vent, in a large measure, the development of this 
vice. It is the duty of those constructing poultry 
houses to arrange them so that this vice, together 
with other undesirable features of poultry-keeping, 
may be avoided so far as possible. Another ar- 
rangement of nests, in which they are attached 
to the side or end walls, and therefore do not 
occupy floor space, is recommended by many 
practical poultry-keepers. 

It is important to arrange the nests so that 
they may be readily cleaned and disinfected, for 
it is well known that if the perches and nests of 
the fowls can be kept free from mites, or so- 
called summer lice, the fowls themselves will be 
entirely free from them. If the nest boxes, 
therefore, are movable and can readily be taken 
out of doors for thorough cleaning it will be 
found somewhat easier to keep them entirely free 
from these pests than if stationary nests are 
used, and it will certainly be easier to exter- 
minate them should they once gain a foothold. 

Nests of Leghorns, Hamburgs, and Minorcas 
may be constructed of boards, six inches wide, 
making boxes 8x10 inches in the clear. The 
American breeds and Asiatics should have some- 
what larger nests. 

Fine hay is satisfactory for nest material and 



Nests, and Drinking Fountains 119 

excelsior answers the purpose admirably. Sea- 
grass, so extensively used in packing china and 
crockery, is an excellent material. Whatever ma- 
terial is used, it should be such as will not easily 
stain the eggs. An egg when first laid is moist, and 
if the nest material stains or gives up its coloring 
matter readily, the egg is likely to be more or less 
stained, particularly if it has a white shell. If 
the nests are placed side by side, the partitions 
should extend two inches or more above the nest 
material to prevent the fowls from attempting to 
draw the eggs from one nest to another, and, in 
so doing, cause the eggs to roll back and be 
broken. 

Drinking fountains. — It is of the utmost im- 
portance that fowls be supplied with pure water. 
This is one of the somewhat difficult problems 
that every poultry man has to meet. It 
is difficult to keep the water dishes 
clean, particularly when the fowls are 
confined in the houses, as they are dur- 
ing the severe winter months. Scratch- 
ing in the litter will cause more 
or less dirt to enter the drink- 
ing dishes, and usually such 

„ , p T f.i f> 1 ^^2. 41. A simple drinking 

towls are ted sott tood once a fountain; a bottie or jug 
day at least, and this food will ^^"^ ^^ ^ "««^^^^^^- 
also enter the drinking dishes to some extent when 
the fowls drink after eating. There are a number 




120 



Farm Poultry 



of patented drinking fountains on the market, 
many of which are automatic and keep a small 
supply of water constantly before the fowls. 
Under favorable conditions these fountains will, 
undoubtedly, prove very satisfactory. Under ad- 
verse conditions, however, 
some of them have not 
given satisfaction, for the 
reason that they are diffi- 
cult to clean. If the foun- 
tain becomes tainted, as it 
is very likely to do in warm 
weather, it is not so readily 
cleaned as a simple tin or 
earthen dish. Drink- 
ing fountains that are 
not readily cleaned are 
ob j ectionable . Many 
automatic fountains are 
constructed on the principle of the student lamp, 
which permits a small quantity of liquid to pass 
from the reservoir whenever a bubble of air is 
permitted to enter it. The inverted jug or bottle, 
with its opening placed in a shallow dish, illus- 
trates the principle. See Fig. 41. An improved 
arrangement is seen in Fig. 42. The reservoir is 
supported between two uprights and so arranged 
that it may revolve for convenience in filling. 
Another arrangement, which has given satisfac- 




Fig. 42. An improved drinking fountain 
with a revolving reservoir. 






Drinking Fountains 



121 



tion in the hands of successful poultrymen, may 
be constructed as follows (Fig. 43) : an ordinary 
shallow milk pan is placed on a block or shallow 
box, the top of which is four or five inches from 
the floor. The water or milk to be drunk by the 
fowls is placed in this pan. Over the pan is 
placed a board cover supported on pieces of lath 
about eight inches long nailed to the cover so 
that they are about two inches apart, the lower 
ends resting on the box which forms the support 
of the pan. In order to drink from the pan, it is 
necessary for the fowls to insert their heads be- 
tween these pieces of lath. The cover over the 
pan and the strips of lath at the sides prevent the 
poultry from fouling 
the water in any man- 
ner except in the act 
of drinking. When 
drinking pans of 
this kind are used, f 
it is very easy to 
cleanse and scald 
them with hot 
water as occasion demands. This arrangement 
can be carried a little further by placing a pan 
or, what would be still better, a long, narrow 
dish, something like a tin bread- tray, on a low 
shelf a few inches from the floor and hinging the 
cover to one side of the poultry house so that 




Fig. 43. A shallow milk pan used as a 
water basin, and protected with a board 
cover ha\ing supports of laths. 



122 



Farm Poultry 



it can be tipped up in front for the removal of 
the dish or for filling it with water. See Fig. 44. 
Whatever arrangement is made for furnishing 
water for the fowls, it should comply with these 
conditions : (1) the drinking pan must be so 
constructed that it may be easily and thoroughly 





1 


fi ^ 


















i^i — 


% 


i 
^ 


i 


T 


1 


^ 



Fig. 44. A protected water basin. 

cleansed; (2) fowls should have access to pure 
water at all times. 

Dust boxes. — It is not only desirable, but nec- 
essary, to provide dust boxes for the fowls if they 
are to be kept reasonably free from body-lice. 
This is particularly true during the winter months. 
During the summer, if the fowls have a more or 
less wide range, dusty places will be found out of 
doors wherein they may take dust baths. During 
the late fall, winter and early spring, conveniences 
should be supplied the fowls within doors, wherein 






Dust Baths 



123 



they may wallow in the dust. A comparatively 
small box will answer for a flock of a dozen or 
twenty hens if the attendant will see that the box 
is kept well filled with dry dust and free from 
litter and other coarse material. If these boxes 
can be so placed that they receive some sunshine 
on bright days it will be found easier to keep the 




Fig. 45. Combined house and scratching shed, an excellent plan. 
Rhode Island Agricultural College. 

dust dry, and fowls prefer them so located rather 
than in some dark corner. Fine road dust pro- 
cured during the hot, dry weather of July and 
August from a much -traveled highway has no 
superior for this purpose. Probably there is no 
way in which the poultryman can better combat 
the body -lice than by providing dust boxes for 
his fowls. It is true that the fowls may be kept 
comparatively free from these pests by the occa- 
sional use of insecticides dusted thoroughly among 



124 Farm Poultry 

the feathers of the various parts of the body, but 
as this method necessitates the handling of each 
bird several times during the season most farmers 
will prefer to have the fowls use the dust bath. 
If an insecticide, as powdered sulfur or insect 
powder, is used, it should be dusted through the 
feathers next to the skin, preferably in the even- 
ing when the fowls are quiet and on the perches, 
in order that the material may remain in the 
feathers for several hours. 

Yards and parks. — The question of confining 
fowls is perhaps somewhat undecided in the 
minds of many farmers. Because the fowls of 
a comparatively small flock, when given their 
liberty or the run of the farm, thrive well and 
produce many eggs with very little attention on 
the part of the owner, it should not be inferred 
that large flocks will prove equally satisfactory 
under similar conditions. While a few fowls 
may be given the run of the farm without caus- 
ing very much annoyance, large flocks would be 
objectionable for many reasons. 

Each individual must decide for himself whether 
he will permit his fowls to have the run of the 
farm or whether he will confine them in pens or 
yards. Generally speaking, it is far better to 
confine the fowls within suitable inclosures. The 
owner then has control of the conditions and is 
more nearly master of the situation than it is 



Yards and Parks 



125 



possible for him to be when his fowls are given 
full liberty. Those who provide yards or runs 
for the fowls do not all agree as to the best 
method. There are two systems in use, each 
possessing its own advantages, and each hav- 
ing warm adherents. One system or plan pro- 
vides comparatively small areas for small- or 
medium -sized flocks; the other fences large areas 



¥ 




Fig. 46. Poultry house and r^rd. 
Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



for large flocks or masses. It is undoubtedly 
best for each beginner to learn what he can of 
the experience of others and then to select the 
plan that best meets his own requirements. 

Undoubtedly there is no best method of con- 
structing yards or runs for fowls. What may 
answer the purpose admirably for one would be 
quite unsuited to the conditions of another. The 
yards should be so constructed that they best 



126 Farm Poultry 

meet the natural as well as the artificial conditions 
under which the fowls are to be kept. Figs. 47 
and 48 illustrate a way of constructing poultry 
houses and adjoining yards for moderate -sized 
flocks. This system has been used satisfactorily 
by successful poultrymen on comparatively level 
land. It is particularly advantageous when small 
yards are to be used that will require thorough 
cultivation. Whatever may be the form or size 
of the yard, it should be borne in mind that the 
first requisite is cleanliness, that part of the 
yard nearest the poultry house undoubtedly 
requiring frequent cultivation. The ideal con- 
dition is to have one part of the yard in perma- 
nent grass and another part well cultivated. If 
a rocky or rough piece of land, more or less 
woody, is near at hand, there is no reason why 
this may not profitably form a part of the poultry 
run or yard. Poultry yards accommodating fifty 
hens should inclose about sixteen square rods. 
If fifty fowls are kept confined in the house and 
yard throughout the year, as described above, it 
will be necessary to have a considerable part 
of the yard thoroughly cultivated in order to 
keep it clean. 

The expense of constructing and maintaining 
poultry fences is considerable, and the plan 
to be preferred is the one that will give the 
greatest satisfaction with the least amount of 



Yards 



127 



fence. If the yards are to be cultivated, it will 
be found advantageous to have them long and 
comparatively narrow. A yard two rods wide 
and eight rods long is convenient to cultivate, 




Fig. 48. 
Povdtry houses and yards of C. H. Wyckoff, Groton, N. Y. 

and is very satisfactory for other reasons. As 
it is found most convenient to have several pens 
in one house, it is therefore convenient to have 
several poultry yards side by side, one fence 
forming the boundary of two yards. See Fig. 26. 



128 Farm Poultry 

Provision should be made for two-horse cultiva- 
tion, for sometimes yards will need to be plowed. 
The yards may be inclosed by either picket or 
wire fences. Whether the fences be entirely of 
wood or of wire netting, they should not be less 
than seven feet high, if Qgg breeds are to be 
confined. In either case, it is well to have a wide 
board placed at the bottom. Sometimes it is 
desirable to confine comparatively small chickens 
in these yards. Boards at least a foot wide at 
the bottom will be very satisfactory, if the re- 
mainder of the fence is constructed of the ordi- 
nary two-inch mesh poultry netting. Should the 
boards be omitted, the lower part of the fence 
should be formed of netting having a mesh 
smaller than two inches. 

It is undoubtedly best to provide some shade 
for the fowls. For this purpose fruit trees have 
given entire satisfaction. Plum trees are especially 
recommended for poultry yards. One of the great- 
est difficulties experienced in raising plums is 
caused by the attacks of the curculio. It has been 
found by trial that plums grown within the poultry 
yard are much less liable to injury by this insect 
than those grown under similar conditions outside 
of the yards. If several poultry yards are arranged 
side by side, the owner may provide for a plum 
orchard by planting a row of plum trees through 
the middle of each yard. The following varieties 



' Yards and Plum Trees 129 

of plums have been especially recommended for 
this pm'pose: 

Lombard, Burbank, 

Bradshaw, Coe Golden Drop. 

Peter Yellow Gage, 

There is no reason why an apple orchard 
may not form a poultry yard to good advantage. 
Particularly would this be true if the orchard 
were kept under thorough cultivation, a practice 
which is now so strongly recommended by the 
most advanced orchardists. The whole orchard 
may be inclosed with the poultry fence and the 
fowls given the run of it. If thought advisable, 
simple, temporary yards may be provided for the 
various flocks during a part of the year, when it 
is desired to keep them separate. At other times 
all of the flocks may be given the run of the 
entire orchard. 

When the fowls have once become accustomed 
to their house or home they will give the owner 
very little trouble by perching elsewhere, even 
though they be given the opportunity to do so. 
Whenever small yards are used, it will be found 
desirable to place the young birds or pullets in 
their permanent yards, if possible to do so. Ma- 
ture fowls, when moved from one pen to another, 
are more likely to fly over the inclosure than if 
kept throughout the season in the yard they have 
learned to recognize as home. It has frequently 



130 Farm Poultry 

been noticed that Leghorn and Minorca hens will 
remain peaceably in the yard in which they have 
been reared, bnt if moved to other yards will give 
the owner more or less trouble by flying over 
the fences, although the latter may be as high 
as seven feet. 

In latitudes where it is not necessary to provide 
warm houses for protection against freezing, many 




Fig, 49. Poultry houses and yards — 
West Virginia Agriciiltural Experiment Station. 

small portable houses in a field of considerable 
size are preferred to more pretentious stationary 
houses with permanent yards. It is ' true that 
the labor of the attendant in feeding is some- 
what increased, but considerable labor is saved 
in cleaning and cultivating the land by merely 
moving the buildings a short distance. The 
houses are usually constructed on rude and in- 
expensive runners, and are moved from place 
to place by means of horses. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE IMPROVEMENT AND BREEDING OF FOWLS 

As a dairyman would make a serious mistake 
in selecting cattle for his dairy if he should draw 
from any but the noted dairy breeds, so the poul- 
tryman or farmer would make an equally serious 
mistake if fowls were chosen that were not spe- 
cially adapted to his purposes. The ultimate suc- 
cess of a business depends largely on the skill of 
the manager in selecting the proper agents or 
machines to do the work. If inferior agents are 
used to produce a merchantable article, either the 
article produced is not first-class or the cost of 
production is not reduced to a minimum. In 
either case the producer is not able to compete 
successfully with those who have a better equip- 
ment. 

SELECTION 

The importance of choosing a suitable breed 
or variety for a special purpose is likely to be 
underestimated. Apparently the same importance 
is not given to differences between the useful 
breeds of fowls, that is recognized between the 

(130 



132 Farm Poultry 

different breeds of cattle and horses. In reality 
as great differences exist. The importance of a 
proper selection is still further emphasized when 
the conditions under which the fowls are to be 
kept are taken into consideration. Some fowls 
will thrive fairly well under conditions that would 
not prove adequate for the profitable maintenance 
of others. Too often a particular variety is se- 
lected for farm use because some fine-looking or 
profitable flock has been seen which has created 
a desire in the mind of the visitor to possess a 
similar flock. This is sometimes done without 
considering the special purposes for which these 
fowls are to be kept, and perhaps without taking 
into account the conditions under which the flock 
is to be maintained, even though these conditions 
differ materially from those under which the ad- 
mired flock existed. 

The great variety of fowls now bred in this 
country offers to the poultryman and farmer a 
wide field for selection. It must be borne in 
mind that of this great variety all are not equally 
well adapted to various purposes of utility. While 
a certain breed may give entire satisfaction in the 
hands of one poultry-keeper, another may find 
these fowls quite unsatisfactory because he is un- 
able to give them the necessary care and to pro- 
vide the conditions under which they thrive best. 
It may happen, therefore, that under a somewhat 



Improving Fowls through Selection 133 

careless management the most noted egg-breeds 
may not prove the most satisfactory for egg pro- 
duction. The capabilities of the fowls and the 
conditions under which they are to be kept should 
both be taken into consideration before fowls are 
selected for a special purpose. 

The wide-awake, progressive poultryman will 
ever be watchful to improve his fowls for the 
purpose in view, after procuring those that seem 
best adapted to his wants. He must not be 
content with merely choosing a proper flock. 
Selection should go on year after year, and the 
fowls be continually improved for the purpose 
for which they are kept and under the existing 
conditions. 

Selecting eggs.— The method on many farms of 
selecting eggs for hatching is entirely faulty, and 
often leads directly to deterioration rather than 
improvement. In the improvement of fowls for 
egg production the choice should be made ac- 
cording to the number of eggs laid. Just as the 
dairyman values his cows by the number of 
pounds of butter fat produced, so should the 
poultryman and farmer value the laying hen by 
the number of eggs put forth annually. As it is 
difficult, and, under the usual conditions, impos- 
sible to ascertain the number of eggs laid by 
each fowl in a farmer's flock, he is forced to 
resort to other methods of determining which are 



134 Farm Poultry 

the desirable and which are the undesirable fowls. 
Frequently farmers take for hatching fine well- 
formed eggs that have just been gathered from 
a promiscuous flock. This method of selecting 
eggs is entirely wrong, and should be avoided 
as far as possible. In the spring all, or nearly 
all, hens are laying. The hen which did not lay 
at all during the winter will probably lay during 
March, April, and perhaps May. The hen that 
has been laying during the winter will probably 
not lay as many eggs in the spring months as 
the poorer hen that failed to lay during the 
severe cold weather. Consequently eggs collected 
at random from a general flock will consist 
largely of those laid by the poorest-laying hens 
of the whole flock. It is unnecessary to discuss 
this subject further in order to show that this 
kind of selection for Qgg production tends toward 
deterioration, yet many persons undoubtedly pur- 
sue just this course without fully knowing its 
evil tendencies. 

Whenever it is convenient to do so, a few of 
the best-laying hens should be placed by them- 
selves in order that their eggs alone may be used 
for hatching. If it is impossible to select fowls 
for breeding purposes from the records of egg 
production, which is the true test of the laying 
hen, the owner must resort to other methods. 
One of the best substitutes for actual perform- 



Determining Breeding Stock 135 

ance undoubtedly is to select for strength and 
vigor of constitution. It is well understood that 
if the animal machine is not strong it will prob- 
ably be unable to perform the greatest service. 
It is well known that the best layers are strong, 
large -bodied, vigorous fowls. They are known 
to have strong constitutions. 

If breeders are to select for vigor, they can 
do no better, perhaps, than to make the choice 
at the moulting period. Strong, vigorous fowls 
pass through the moulting period very much more 
rapidly than do those having a weak constitution. 
The robust hen that lays a large number of eggs 
during the year will pass through the moulting 
period quickly, and will hardly stop laying, while 
the one having a weak constitution will be a long 
time in producing a new coat of feathers, and will 
not lay for many weeks. The experienced poul- 
tryman, therefore, finds this period in the life of 
the fowl a most excellent one in which to make 
his selection. The fact that the bird with a 
strong constitution is the most profitable for egg 
production, may explain why the fowls of poul- 
trymen who make a specialty of egg production 
average larger than the fowls of those who breed 
for exhibition. Almost without exception, the 
average size of fowls of flocks specially noted for 
egg laying is considerably larger than the average 
size of fowls of the pure-bred stock of that breed. 



136 Farm Poultry 

As a good- sized body and a deep and broad 
breast are indicative of a strong constitution, so 
are they the requisites of a good laying hen. 

If one is compelled to make a selection for 
Qgg production solely from the general conforma- 
tion or appearance of the fowl, he should select 
deep, long- bodied birds. Those having a short 
underline, circular in outline, should be dis- 
carded. The feeding capacity of the hen is im- 
portant, for those that are able to digest and 
assimilate large quantities of food are vigorous 
fowls and consequently can produce eggs in 
abundance. 

Americans look very much closer to the color 
and feather markings than do the English. So 
far as meat and ^gg production are concerned, 
the English, without doubt, have the advantage. 
As shown in a previous chapter, it is undoubtedly 
much more difficult to develop two unrelated char- 
acteristics to the highest state of perfection than 
to develop a single characteristic. The English- 
man, therefore, who seeks Qgg production without, 
special regard to the color of the plumage, finds 
it easier to reach the highest state of perfection 
than does the American who desires to breed 
fowls for Qgg production and, at the same time, 
have them true to feather. 

If one must select fowls for exhibition pur- 
poses and breed them for fancy points, it will 






Egg Production and Fertility of Eggs 137 

undoubtedly be best to choose some solid-colored 
breed or variety whose tendency to depart from 
the standard color is not strong. It should not 
be inferred that all solid- colored fowls are easy 
to breed true to color ; in fact, some of the so- 
called solid colors, notably the buffs, are the 
most difficult to breed to perfection. 

The question of securing fertile eggs for in- 
cubation is one that always gives breeders more 
or less concern. Some breeders are more suc- 
cessful than others in securing fertile eggs, and 
apparently all breeders are more successful dur- 
ing some seasons than others. Some breeds of 
fowls are noted for producing fertile eggs, while 
others are generally recognized as inferior in this 
respect. The freedom given the fowls of a flock, 
the vigor of the individuals, and the number of 
males, very largely determine the fertility. Pul- 
lets' eggs are generally not selected for hatching. 
It is thought that they are not so likely to be 
fertile, and will not produce as strong and vigor- 
ous chickens as hens' eggs. 

Those who have had experience in operating 
incubators know that all fertile eggs will not 
hatch. There seem to be all grades of fertility, 
from the ^^g having a vigorous germ that will 
produce a strong, healthy chicken, to that having 
a weak germ and is practically an infertile ^gg. 
As the two extremes are united by various 



138 Farm Poultry 

intermediate grades, it is impossible to draw a 
definite line of separation which shall divide the 
fertile from the infertile ones. 

Fresh eggs are to be preferred for hatching, 
although good hatches from eggs that were kept 
several weeks are reported. Eggs are sometimes 
sent long distances and still retain their vitality 
sufficiently to produce a good number of strong 
chicks. The following is quoted from an experi- 
ment station publication : * " Where the incubator 
is placed in a room whose temperature is reason- 
ably even and is properly managed, a high per- 
centage of hatch may be expected only {a) when 
the hens have plenty of exercise, (&) when the 
eggs are freshly laid." 

After the male is removed, the eggs are 
thought to be fertile for a few days, — "from four 
to fourteen days" is given by some authors. The 
following gives the results of definite observa- 
tions :t "On the farm of the Ohio State Univer- 
sity 40 Leghorn hens which had previously been 
kept without males were placed in pens with the 
male birds February 18, and the percentage of 
fertile eggs observed for nine days after mating. 
This increased regularly from 0, on the day of 
mating, to 95 per cent on the eighth day after 
mating. July 1 the males were removed from the 

* Bulletin No. 158, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. 
t Agricultural Student I (1894), in Experiment Station Record. 



Influence of Males on Egg Production 139 

pens. The fertility of the eggs was apparently not 
materially affected nntil the twelfth day after 
removing the roosters. . . . Unfortunately the 
eggs were only saved fifteen days, and hence 
it is not shown how long hens must be removed 
from the male before all the eggs become in- 
fertile." 

For the greatest production of eggs, males are 
not required except for the breeding pen. Many 
poultrymen who have made a specialty of ^gg 
production and have won for themselves a repu- 
tation in this direction, have found by experi- 
ence that males are of no use in the laying pen, 
and are often a positive injury when only eggs for 
food are desired. Tests that have been made at 
experiment stations to determine the influence of 
males on ^gg production, tend to show that the 
practice of poultrymen in excluding males is most 
advantageous. The following paragraph is taken 
from an experiment station bulletin:* 

"A pen of pullets kept without a male pro- 
duced eggs at about 30 per cent less cost than 
an exactly similar pen with which a cockerel 
was kept. ... In each of the two pens with- 
out male birds some pullets had begun to lay 
from one to two months earlier than any in the 
corresponding pens in which male birds were 
kept." 

* Bulletin No. 57, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



140 Farm Poultry 



BEEEDING 



Heredity, — Since the earliest times of which 
any authentic records have been preserved, owners 
of live stock have made attempts to improve the 
animals under their charge by the art of breed- 
ing. Accounts state that the ancients recognized 
the principle in breeding that "like begets like," 
and depended on it quite as much as on any other 
principle. It is on this principle that the poul- 
tryman and stock owner depend for the perpetu- 
ation of species, breeds and varieties. In this 
principle is recognized the law which, within 
certain limits, makes offspring like their parents. 
The development of this theory no doubt came 
from a close observation of domesticated animals. 
Had only wild animals been observed, it is likely 
that the similarity of offspring to parents would 
have been taken as a matter of course, and what 
is now known as the law of heredity would have 
been studied comparatively little. 

Poultry breeders recognize the law that off- 
spring resemble their parents within certain limits, 
and depend upon this law more than upon any 
other as the foundation upon which the improve- 
ment by breeding depends. If it were not for 
the law of heredity, selection would be practically 
of no value. If strong, hearty, vigorous parents, 
which are noted for their useful qualities, were 



The Transmission of Characters 141 

unable to transmit their desirable traits, it might 
be quite as profitable to breed from the most use- 
less of animals. In other words, the value of 
selection depends upon the ability of the parent 
to impress its own characteristics upon its off- 
spring. That characteristics are transmitted to a 




Fig. 50. Breeding aud exhibition house and runs — 
Rhode Island Agricultural College. 

certainty, within certain limits, is evident to all. 
A description of the characteristics of one man 
will apply to nearly all men. 

Variation, — It has long been recognized that 
there is a tendency to vary within certain limits, 
and that this tendency is always present in all 
classes of animals, whether wild or domesticated. 
The fact that wild birds and animals possess 
sufficient individuality to make them readily rec- 
ognizable by each other is adequate proof that 
these animals are not precisely alike in all re- 
spects. We readily distinguish the differences 



142 Farm Poultry 

between individual members of our herds and 
flocks, although all members of a flock or herd 
may have sprung from the mating of two indi- 
viduals, and therefore have the same lineage- 
It is more difficult to observe the differences 
in wild birds and animals, yet such differences 
exist sufficiently to show that the law of variation 
is universal and constant in its action. It has 
been said that "no two animals are exactly alike 
in all respects." 

The tendency to vary is transmitted from par- 
ents to progeny in the same way that other pecu- 
liarities are transmitted. This has often been 
of the greatest importance in the improvement of 
fowls, mammals and plants. Breeders who are 
trying to improve their stock are continually en- 
deavoring to bring the law of heredity into force 
so far as desirable characteristics are concerned, 
and as continually striving to prevent the opera-, 
tion of the law so far as undesirable character- 
istics are concerned. 

The fact that animals vary permits of an indi- 
vidual being an improvement on its parents. If 
this individual is allowed to transmit its good 
characteristics, improvement may be attained. 
Without progressive variation breeders could not 
secure improvement. Probably all they could 
do would be to prevent deterioration. 

If a breeder is trying to improve his flock, he 



The Law of Variation 



143 



looks closely for those individuals that show the 
greatest tendency to vary. These individuals he 
selects for breeding stock. He finds that their 
young vary considerably. They do not closely 
resemble each other, nor do they closely resemble 
their parents. If an abundance of good foad and 
congenial surroundings be provided, he may ex- 
pect, in the course of a few generations, that some 




Fig. 51. An inclosed scratching shed, an excellent plan — 
Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

individuals will show a marked tendency to vary 
in the direction of improvement. By judicious 
mating, some or all of the desired improvements 
may be transmitted and rendered permanent. 
The improvement of breeds consists essentially in 
fixing the desired variations. 

Poultrymen usually look to the male for the 
gi^eatest tendency to vary.* Consequently in many 

*" Heredity," by Wm, H. Brooks. 



144 Farm Poultry 

improvements and in the development of many 
new breeds, the male leads. As a rule, the males 
of a breed or variety differ more from one another 
than the females differ from each other. The 
young more nearly resemble the female than they 
do the male. It is also observed that the organs 
most highly developed in the male differ more 
than do the organs which are most highly devel- 
oped in the female, — that is, the comb, wattles, 
and tail, which are most highly developed in 
the male, differ more than those parts which are 
most highly developed in the female. The im- 
provement of domesticated fowls depends upon 
the transmission of desired characteristics which 
have been produced through the action of this law 
or fact of variation. 

In- and -in -breeding. — This term is often used 
in a rather loose sense to indicate the breeding 
together of animals which are more or less closely 
related. It is generally used, however, to indi- 
cate the breeding together of animals that are 
closely related for several successive generations ; 
and in this sense it is used in this discussion. As 
breeders have not agreed on an exact definition of 
in -and -in -breeding, there is a considerable differ- 
ence of opinion as to just what the term implies. 
Some breeders hold that the term implies only the 
mating of animals of the closest relationship, 
while others strenuously maintain that more dis- 



In -and -in -Breeding 145 

tant relationship should be included. It is held 
by some that breeding together animals which 
have a more distant degree of relationship than 
that known in the human family as aunt and 
nephew or uncle and niece, should not be recog- 
nized as coming within the meaning of this term. 
On the other hand, others are emphatic in in- 
cluding more remote relationship. 

In-and-in -breeding has played a most important 
part in the formation of breeds and also in the 
improvement of breeds that were well established. 
As variation and selection enable the breeder to 
produce individuals of superior merit, he will 
naturally try to perpetuate this superiority and 
to reap the advantages of it through successive 
generations in his herd or flock. This has been 
made possible through in -and -in -breeding. Al- 
most without exception marked improvement is 
first noted in one or two animals. If the progeny 
of these animals are bred to each other or to one 
of their parents, the young resulting from this 
mating will contain a much larger percentage of 
the "blood" of the animal in which the improve- 
ment was noted than could be obtained in any 
other way. Consequently the chances that the 
improvement will be transmitted are consider- 
ably enhanced. 

In other words, in -and -in -breeding enables the 
breeder to accumulate or " pile up " the blood of 



146 Farm Poultry 

a superior animal in the descendants of this valu- 
able individual. To make use of an illustration, 
it may be supposed that A and B represent two 
animals of the same breed and that A is of su- 
perior merit. If these animals are mated, the 
blood of the progeny will be represented by one- 
half A and one-half B. If A be bred to one of 
the progeny, the blood of the offspring of the last 
union will be represented by three-fourths A and 
one-fourth B. This practice may be repeated in 
succeeding generations and would be accepted 
by all as in- and -in -breeding. As the percentage 
of blood is increased the chances that the im- 
provement will be perpetuated are also increased. 

While in -and -in -breeding serves a most useful 
purpose, under certain conditions, it should not 
be forgotten that it may also cause deterioration 
in various ways. A commonly accepted belief is, 
that the practice of in -and -in -breeding may re- 
sult in a reduced constitution, may weaken the 
mental vigor, reduce the size of the individuals 
and make them less prolific. Many instances 
might be cited to show that any one or all of 
these evils may accrue from in-and-in-breeding, 
and it is also true that any one or all of these 
evils will not be produced to a certainty by this 
practice. 

It is recognized that both good and evil re- 
sults may follow the practice of in-breeding. 



Selecting for In-and-in- Breeding 147 

but it is not generally accepted that the good 
or evil results are in proportion to the degree 
of relationship between the animals mated. If 
in-breeding is to be practiced, the degree of re- 
lationship should not be the determining factor. 
A more rational selection is based on the indi- 
vidual merits of the animals to be mated. When 
related individuals are to be bred together, the 
selection should be made on the suitability of 
the animals to each other and not wholly on the 
degree of relationship. 

The safety with which in-and-in-breeding may 
be practiced will depend largely on the skill that 
is used in selecting the related animals that 
are to be mated, and on the extent to which 
the practice is carried. The skilful breeder will 
be able to derive many benefits, and will cease 
the practice before positive injuries accrue. It 
may safely be asserted, as a general rule, that 
promiscuous or indiscriminate in-and-in-breeding 
should not be practiced. 

Farmers sometimes select from their young 
fowls the best cockerel to head the flock the 
next year, and hold that as long as they are 
breeding from their best stock, improvement should 
follow. In so doing, they perhaps forget that the 
weaknesses are all quite as likely to be multiplied 
in the progeny as the desired characteristics. 

Cross-hreeding . — This may be defined as breed- 



148 Farm Poultry 

ing together animals of two distinct breeds. For 
many years cross-breeding was a favorite method, 
and probably became popular because of the 
frequently observed fact that increased vigor 
was imparted by it. During the eighteenth cen- 
tury, animals were frequently cross-bred, which, 
undoubtedly, produced in the progeny a plasticity 
of constitution and well prepared them for the 
hands of skilful breeders who later attempted 
to improve them. 

Crossing does not always bring improvement, 
although there seems to be a somewhat preva- 
lent idea that such improvement necessarily re- 
sults. While certain breeds may be crossed and 
will thus produce increased vigor in the progeny, 
yet there is frequently a tendency to reversion. 
That is, the progeny will resemble a remote an- 
cestor, perhaps one of the original breeds from 
which the improved animals were descended. 
Charles Darwin bred a Black Spanish and a 
White Silky together and in the second gener- 
ation secured a fowl that very much resembled 
the wild Jungle Fowl of India, from which domes- 
ticated fowls are supposed to have descended. 

Whenever a cross is made between individuals 
of distinct and well-established breeds, reversion 
is most likely to occur. That is, the blood of 
certain distinct breeds does not blend well. It is 
said that a well-established white breed crossed 



Bangers of Cross -Breeding 149 

upon a black one that is equally as well estab- 
lished, is quite as likely to produce copper- col- 
ored chicks as black or white, or a mixture of 
the two. There seems to be a greater tendency 
to reversion whenever violent crosses are made. 

There is a somewhat prevalent idea that if 
a fowl that has certain good qualities be crossed 
on one having other good qualities, the offspring 
will have the good qualities of both. This is 
a most serious mistake. In fact, the poor quali- 
ties of both parents are even more likely to be 
seen in the offspring than are the good qualities 
of both. Some authorities state that the poor 
qualities of both parents are more likely to be 
seen in the offspring than the good qualities of 
either. 

At the present time there is much controversy 
over the influence of a preceding sire on the 
offspring. Some breeders hold that in mammals 
if a pure -bred female becomes pregnant by a 
mongrel she is forever after incapable of bear- 
ing pure -bred offspring. Poultry men, however, 
do not hold such extreme views. It is doubtful 
whether it has been clearly shown that the breed- 
ing qualities of a pure -bred hen have been in- 
jured by a previous mating. 

Cross-breeding has rendered a great service 
in the formation of new breeds. The Plymouth 
Rocks and Wyandottes are familiar examples of 



150 Farm Poultry 

breeds formed by crossing well-established breeds. 
It is of doubtful economy to cross pure -bred 
fowls of well-established races, except for special 
purposes which will rarely be of service to the 
general farmer. It may happen that skilled poul- 
trymen will find it to their advantage to cross 
distinct breeds for the production of a specialty 
which has become quite famous. Successful 
practices of this kind are comparatively few, 
and are of foremost interest to the specialist. 
Whenever pure breeds are crossed it is for the 
production of a merchantable product, and the 
use of these fowls for the production of pure- 
bred stock is therefore lost. 

Breed pure-hred stock. — The question is fre- 
quently asked whether it will pay to breed pure- 
bred stock. If the answer is made candidly and 
honestly it must be given as both affirmative 
and negative. It certainly will pay to breed 
pure-bred stock if proper food, care and man- 
agement be given. It probably will not pay the 
average farmer to invest in expensive pure-bred 
stock and to keep this stock in the way in 
which the fowls of mixed breeding are generally 
kept throughout the country. As the pure-bred 
stock had received superior advantages in order 
to bring it to its greatest usefulness, so must it 
receive advantages which the common stock of 
the country does not receive if it is to remain 



Common and Pure -Bred Stock Compared 151 

superior. In other words, the common stock 
of mixed breeding throughout the country is 
practically equal to the thoroughbred stock that 
is kept under the same conditions for any con- 
siderable length of time. If neglect and im- 
proper feeding are not to enter into the problem, 
the pure- bred stock will, undoubtedly, give by 
far the best satisfaction. The grain dealer finds 
that a certain variety of grain is hardy and is 
recognized as "sure," that is, it rarely fails to 
bring a reasonable crop, yet under the most 
favorable conditions would not produce a maxi- 
mum crop. Under the most favorable conditions 
other varieties may outyield this hardy one, but 
under adverse conditions would not be able to 
withstand the severe test endured by it. So we 
find pure-bred stock, in some respects, resem- 
bles the improved and more productive but less 
hardy varieties of grain. Under the most favor- 
able conditions the pure breeds will, undoubtedly, 
prove mop't remunerative. Under adverse con- 
ditions, where hardiness is the all -important con- 
sideration, the useful qualities cannot remain so 
highly developed. 

It is frequently said that if pure-bred stock 
is good for anything it should prove superior in 
the same conditions under which common stock 
is usually kept; but the owner of the common 
stock says that he does not believe in pam- 



152 Farm Pou 

pering his fowls. This is a serious mistake, 
and one that frequently prevents the true ap- 
preciation of improved breeds. It should not be 
forgotten that the best of improved breeds have 
reached their superiority through years of skilful 
feeding and breeding. Food has always played 
an important part in the formation and improve- 
ment of all noted useful breeds. Abundant feed- 
ing and good care have produced an organization 
that is capable of digesting and assimilating large 
quantities of food and turning it to good account. 
That is, the machine is an economical one and 
strong enough to do much work. The farmer 
who invests in pure -bred stock and gives it 
the same treatment that has maintained for 
years an indifferent lot of fowls, finds the im- 
proved stock satisfactory at first, but succeeding 
generations become more and more unsatisfac- 
tory until they reach the level of the common 
stock, which was the highest standard that his 
care and feeding could maintain. Such breed- 
ers stoutly maintain that it does not pay to 
breed pure- bred stock. 

Improved breeds are the best, and should be 
selected whenever it is possible to give them 
proper food and care. While they may not prove 
greatly superior under adverse conditions, yet they 
respond so much more quickly to improved con- 
ditions that those who are able to care properly 






Improving Common Stock 153 

for their fowls will derive much greater profit 
from the best than from the ordinary. Improved 
breeds are most remunerative when an abun- 
dance of suitable food is provided, and the fowls 
are given care conducive to the particular pur- 
pose for which they are kept. 

IMPKOVEMENT OF COMMON FOWLS 

If it is desired to improve the fowls of the 
farm without the outlay of any considerable time 
or money except that which is to be given in 
providing better food and environment, perhaps 
the most satisfactory way is to use a pure-bred 
male. This method enables the farmer or poul- 
tryman to change at once one -half of his breed- 
ing flock to pure-bred stock so far as influence 
on the progeny is concerned. From the breeders' 
standpoint the male constitutes one-half of the 
flock, and under the average existing conditions 
this will probably be a fair statement of the 
male's influence. Undoubtedly there are many 
instances in which the male's influence is very 
much greater than the combined influence of all 
the females of the flock. Instances of this kind 
are more likely to be seen when the male is a 
well-formed, strong, vigorous bird, from equally 
well -formed, strong, pure-bred ancestors. If 
these conditions have existed for several genera- 



154 Farm Poultry 

tions, the importance of the male is all the more 
marked. 

If the females are of mixed or no particular 
breeding, their influence is likely to be far less 
than that of the male. So it may be safely said 
that the influence of a strong, vigorous, pure-bred 
male, introduced into a flock of females of mixed 
breeding, will be at least equal to that of all 
the females in a transmission of parental char- 
acteristics. The progeny from a well-bred male 
and females of mixed breeding are generally 
quite uniform in form and color. Many a farm- 
er's boy has been delighted with the sudden 
improvement of a flock of fowls by the intro- 
duction of a pure-bred male. In fact, many of 
them have found that the progeny of this breed- 
ing have proved to be the most desirable fowls 
for the farm. Some of them, to their sorrow, 
have tried to maintain the fine appearance and 
highly useful qualities of these fowls by selecting 
breeding stock from the general flock. Conse- 
quently, the next generation was less satisfactory 
and the third and fourth were disappointing. 
This condition has been most noticeable when 
the pure-bred male and the more or less indiffer- 
ent females have represented quite marked dif- 
ferences in type. Instead of selecting a male 
from the general flock, another pure-bred male 
of the same breed as the first should have been 



Grading Up 155 

secured. This process is known in stock-breed- 
ing as "grading up." The larger the proportion 
of pure-bred blood the higher the grade. 

A rational method of improving a flock of 
fowls is first to choose with great care the breed 
for the purpose; from this breed pick a strong, 
vigorous, pure-bred male, and mate him with 
the best hen; from the progeny of this mating 
select the best females, to place with another 
vigorous, pure-bred male of the same breed as 
the first. This operation should be repeated each 
year, and eventually the fowls will have all the 
characteristics of pure-bred fowls. The yearly 
choice of a pure-bred male should be continued. 

It is undoubtedly best to breed from unrelated 
stock so far as possible. It may also be safely 
said that if the greatest improvement is to be 
hiade, only mature fowls should be used for breed- 
ing purposes. Particularly is this true with the 
females of ^gg, breeds. Pullets are not so desir- 
able as hens for breeding purposes. Continued 
breeding from immature stock has a tendency 
to weaken the constitution and to reduce the size. 
If it is necessary to use pullets they should, as 
a rule, be mated with mature males. On the 
other hand, it is frequently desirable to mate hens 
with cockerels. 

Breed useful fowls. — It is the object of the 
farmer to breed useful fowls. While the indi- 



156 Farm Poultry 

viduals may not possess the requisite fancy 
points to win prizes at exhibitions, yet these 
same individuals should be noted for usefulness. 
The most noted flocks for ^gg production, those 
that have gained a national reputation, have 
been selected and improved for this one particu- 
lar quality to the exclusion of fancy points, on 
which so much importance is placed at the 
great poultry exhibitions. In the early history 
of these flocks, the surplus birds were not largely 
sold for breeding purposes. The reputation of 
these flocks had not been established, and because, 
the birds did not possess the prize-winning fancy 
points, the demand for them was not equal to 
the supply. In later years, when the reputation 
of these flocks became well known, the surplus 
stock found ready sale at remunerative prices, 
solely because of their usefulness. While farm 
stock should receive recognition at agricultural 
fairs, yet it will be shown at a disadvantage when 
placed in competition with the fanciers' fowls, 
which are bred largely for exhibition. The farm- 
er's stock should be selected and maintained 
for the profit of eggs and meat, rather than for 
the profit which the fowls may bring when sold 
for breeding stock. It is quite possible that 
mauy farmers may sell breeding stock at remu- 
nerative prices, although the main object should 
not be to produce birds for this purpose. When- 



Selection and Improvement 157 

ever one depends on the sale of fowls for breed- 
ing purposes for profit, it becomes necessary to 
enter into competition with other breeders at the 
great poultry shows. This necessitates a depart- 
ure from the purpose for which farm fowls are 
kept. 

Farmers and others who maintain flocks for 
usefulness should not forget the importance of 
selection. Remember that all improvement is 
largely due to selection, and that after the flock 
is well established it can be further improved 
for the purposes for which the breeds are kept 
by rigorous selection, skilful breeding and im- 
proved feeding. It is possible for every farmer 
to improve any breed of fowls for his purpose. 
This of course implies productiveness under cer- 
tain conditions. A breed of fowls, or a flock 
of fowls of a distinct breed, may be brought to 
a high state of perfection by a poultryman, con- 
sidering the conditions under which he keeps 
them, and under more favorable conditions they 
may be still further improved. 



CHAPTER IX 

FEEDING FOB EGGS AND FOB MEAT 

The successful poultry- keeper recognizes that 
all kinds of wholesome poultry food which the 
market affords are not equally well suited to his 
fowls which he keeps for the production of either 
eggs or meat. He lays great stress on the care- 
ful selection of food for the making of special 
products. 

FEEDING FOR EGGS 

If one desires to feed economically for Qgg 
production, and has learned little or nothing from 
experience, a most valuable lesson may be learned 
from nature. It will be observed that those fowls 
which are more or less neglected, and, conse- 
quently, not so far removed from the natural 
state, lay most abundantly in the spring. In 
this respect, then, the poultry-keeper may profit- 
ably aim, so far as it lies within his power, to 
prolong the spring throughout the year. In the 
spring these fowls are at liberty to roam at will 
and to find abundant green food in the tender 

(158) 



Food and Exercise 159 

shoots of grass and other plants. They find 
meat food in the form of insects, worms and 
other low forms of animal life. These, with 
grain in some form, make a most perfect food 
for laying hens. If the grain food is not sup- 
plied to them by the poultry- keeper, they may 
still find it in the form of seeds of various 
plants. In other words, it should be the aim 
of the poultry -keeper to supply the food and 
conditions which tend to produce eggs most 
abundantly. While it is true that the physical 
organization of fowls is such that they will be 
unable to maintain throughout the year the abun- 
dant supply of eggs of the springtime, yet this 
will be most nearly approached if the conditions 
are springlike the year round. 

Exercise. — In the spring season the fowls that 
are given free range obtain abundant exercise. 
It is important to provide exercise for all noted 
Q^gg breeds, as these fowls are active in dispo- 
sition. Close confinement without exercise is 
not conducive to the best results, although the 
quality and quantity of food provided may be 
most excellent. While exercise is required for 
Q^g production, it is not desirable when the fin- 
est quality of meat is sought, particularly during 
the last of the fattening period, so that what 
may be said of exercise for Qgg production 
should not be applied to fattening fowls. 



160 Farm Poultry 

Quality of food. — It has been clearly shown by 
experiments that the food consumed by laying 
hens affects the flavor of the eggs. In extreme 
cases, not only is the flavor of the food imparted, 
but the odor as well. Onions* have been fed 
to fowls in sufficient quantity to impart a decided 
flavor and odor to the eggs. So marked was the 
result, that persons wholly unacquainted with the 
experiment had no difficulty in distinguishing 
these eggs from those which were laid by hens 
fed a normal ration. 

The mere fact that food influences the flavor 
of eggs in extreme cases, is a sufficient reason 
for the poultryman to reject all food that is not 
strictly wholesome. It has not been determined 
to what extent the ordinary poultry foods in- 
fluence the flavor; but tainted food should not 
be permitted to enter into the composition of 
the ration. If food of high and objectionable 
flavor imparts its peculiar taste and odor to the 
Qigg^ it is not safe for those who desire to pro- 
duce a prime article to run unnecessary risks in 
feeding doubtful food. Pure, wholesome food is 
so abundant and cheap that there is no excuse 
for a questionable practice. 

Forced feeding for eggs. — It is maintained by 
some authorities that, when hens are given a 

* From unpublished results of experiments conducted by the author, 
at Cornell University. 



Moderate Feeding 161 

course of forced feeding for egg production, their 
period of usefulness is materially shortened. This 
no doubt will be true in many instances, when 
the fowls have been injudiciously fed. Experi- 
ence has shown that it is possible with ordinarily 
vigorous animals to carry the forcing process so 
far that many individuals will be permanently in- 
juied. These cases, however, should be consid- 
ered as extreme and do not come within the 
province of judicious feeding. The injury done 
to dairy animals by forced feeding is undoubt- 
edly chiefly due to the injudicious feeding of un- 
natural foods. The injury is associated mostly 
with the digestive functions. It is quite possible 
to injure the digestion of laying hens by a sys- 
tem of forced feeding. 

Egg production is a reproductive function, and 
in this respect differs somewhat from milk pro- 
duction in the dairy cow. To what extent this 
reproductive function may be injured by feeding 
has not been fully determined. It has been ob- 
served many times that after a year of forced Qg,g 
production the number of eggs laid has been 
somewhat decreased; that is, it is possible, by 
means of extra food and care, to induce fowls 
to lay more eggs than would be produced under 
good average conditions; but it is not possible 
to keep up the highest degree of egg production 
through two or three successive years. It is, 



162 Farm Poultry 

therefore, the practice of many poultrymen to 
keep only young birds for Qgg production and 
to force them for this product. When the hens 
have served a period of forced egg laying, they 
are replaced by younger fowls. This method 
will necessitate keeping older fowls as breeding 
stock, which is in accord with the most approved 
practice. 

Corn. — Of the grain foods that are usually 
supplied to farm poultry, corn has been, and still 
is, the most popular. This, no doubt, is largely 
due to the abundance of this grain and to its 
relative cheapness. If the fowls are somewhat 
closely confined, a corn ration is found to be 
somewhat too fattening for most satisfactory re- 
sults, particularly when fed to general -purpose 
fowls. If this grain is supplied to the noted egg 
breeds that have a wide range, much more sat- 
isfactory results are likely to be obtained. It 
should be the aim of the poultryman to feed 
considerable grain in such manner as will not 
cause the fowls to become excessively fat. Fat 
fowls, as a rule, do not lay so abundantly as do 
those in moderate flesh. When corn is fed to 
laying hens that have opportunity to take plenty 
of exercise and to secure for themselves insects 
and green food, much better results will be ob- 
tained than when it is fed to the same kind of 
fowls closely confined. Experiments have shown 



Value of Corn as a Food 163 

that a clear corn ration, given to closely confined 
Leghorn hens, has resulted in a marked decrease 
in Qgg production and is sometimes accompanied 
by feather pulling. Feather pulling usually in- 
dicates a faulty ration. The fowls have a crav- 
ing for something not supplied to them, and 
resort to feather eating to obtain it. 

Experiments have clearly shown that food has 
a great influence on the color of the yolk of the 
egg. Corn will give deep yellow or highly 
colored yolks. Clear corn and water, the feeding 
of which would be considered an extreme case, 
will produce yolks which are objectionable to 
many consumers on account of the extremely high 
color. Fairly high-colored yolks are generally 
preferred, and a moderate amount of corn in the 
ration can be depended upon to produce the de- 
sired color. 

The greatest economy in feeding fowls will 
depend largely upon the ability of the feeder to 
make the best use of corn. In supplying food 
for domesticated fowls, it should be remembered 
that three kinds of constituents should be pres- 
ent, in tolerably well -fixed proportions, if the 
desired results are to be obtained most economi- 
cally. These constituents are mineral, nitroge- 
nous and carbonaceous. Corn is deficient in both 
mineral and nitrogenous matter. So, whenever 
corn forms a considerable proportion of the daily 



164 Farm Poultry 

ration, these deficiencies should be supplied in 
some acceptable form. Animal meal, cut bone, 
animal charcoal and bone ash are all used for 
this purpose. 

WJieat. — Wheat is preferred to corn by many 
because it is not quite so fattening, and is, there- 
fore, a somewhat safer food in the hands of the 
unskilled feeder. On account of the low price of 
wheat in recent years, it is becoming a very com- 
mon poultry food. Wheat, when fed alone, pro- 
duces eggs having much lighter - colored yolks 
than are produced by a corn ration. Wheat 
alone has somewhat too wide a nutritive ratio 
for best results. This grain should be supple- 
mented by some meat food or skimmed milk in 
order that the proportion of protein may be ma- 
terially increased. Wheat should not form all of 
the grain ration of laying hens, but when mixed 
with other grains it is most highly prized. 

Buckivlieat. — Buckwheat, like wheat, when fed 
alone, has too wide a nutritive ratio and pro- 
duces white flesh and light-colored yolks. These 
are objectionable features to most Americans, but 
in some large cities the foreign population pre- 
fers white skin and light-colored flesh. This 
grain has never been so popular as a poultry food 
in the United States as corn or wheat. 

Oats. — Oats are considered a most excellent 
food and perhaps come nearer the ideal than 



Grains and Succulent Food 165 

any other single grain, particularly if the hull 
or outer covering is removed. This hull, being 
tough and woody and quite indigestible, is not 
relished by the fowls, although some fowls will 
learn to eat whole oats. Oats also tend to give 
the fowl light-colored flesh and light-colored skin. 
On this account oats are not recommended for a 
finishing food, unless skin and shanks of a light 
color are desired. 

Linseed meal. — A little linseed meal in the 
ground food serves a most valuable purpose, 
particularly at the moulting period. "Hens hav- 
ing linseed meal moulted nearly all at the same 
time, earlier in the season, and more rapidly." * 

Green food in general. — When fowls are some- 
what closely confined in yards or pens, it will 
be necessary to supply some kind of green food 
in order to obtain the greatest production of 
eggs. This should be given them throughout 
the year. The question of how to supply the 
best food at the least cost is one that each 
poultry -keeper must decide largely for himself. 
It will probably make very little difference what 
kind of green food is supplied, provided that it 
is relished by the fowls. If the runs or yards are 
large, so that fresh grass may be supplied to 
them during the summer months, little or no 
other green food will be required. 

* Bulletin No. 39, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



366 Farm, Poultry 

Clover^ etc. — Clover cut durinp^ the early spring 
is perhaps one of the cheapest and best of foods. 
It is nitrogenous and is readily eaten when cut 
?n).Q in a fodder -cutter. If clover is frequently 
mowed, a good quality of green food may be 
obtained nearly all summer, particularly in sea- 
sons of abundant rainfall. Should the supply of 
clover be limited, or the season prove an unusu- 
ally dry one, other legumes may provide a satis- 
factory substitute. Alfalfa will answer the pur- 
pose well if fed to the fowls in a fresh condition. 
A small plot, if well established, will afford a 
great quantity of green food if it is frequently 
mowed. Young alfalfa is tender and is relished 
by the fowls, but when it approaches the blossom- 
ing stage it becomes more woody and is not so 
valuable. Canada field peas are sometimes grown 
for this purpose, and the peas, if fed whole while 
in a tender and crisp condition, are eaten readily 
by the fowls. 

Beets {Mangel - wurz els) . — These beets make 
an excellent green food for the winter months. 
As they are easily raised and will maintain their 
fresh condition in an ordinary root cellar during 
the winter months, they fulfil many of the re- 
quirements of a practical poultry food. They 
may be fed by simply splitting the root length- 
wise with a large knife. If given to the fowls 
in this form, they will pick out the crisp fresh 



Succulent Food 



167 



pulp from the cut surface. Root- cutters are on 
the market which cut beets in fine shreds some- 
what resembhng earthworms m form. See Fig. 52. 
These shreds are eaten readily. Under ordinary 
conditions fowls should have, once a day, about 
all the green food they will eat. The form in 
which the beets are offered is 
not important, provided they 
are consumed while in a 
clean, fresh condition. Un- 
less the pieces of roots be 
small enough for the fowls to 
swallow them, large pieces 
like half a beet are jDrefer- 
able. When beets are fed 
from an open trough, in 
pieces of the size usually 
made by -ordinary root -cut- 
ters, many pieces are likely 
to be scattered in the litter 
and more or less soiled be- 
fore eaten, if eaten at all. Either very small, 
or large and practically immovable pieces, are 
preferred. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is relished by fowls, and 
is highly prized as a poultry food by many 
experienced poultrymen. Cabbage, like beets, 
should be fed in a fresh condition. It is the 
practice of some poultry -keepers to suspend 




Fig. 52. A vegetable-cutter. 



168 Farm Poultry 

heads of cabbage within reach of the fowls and 
permit them to partake ad libitum. 

Bape, etc. — Eape, sea kale, and other plants 
of the cabbage family, which are noted for their 
crisp stems and leaves, furnish excellent green 
poultry food. Dwarf Essex rape may be sown 
in narrow rows and given horse cultivation. 
When the leaves are large enough to furnish 
considerable food, they may be picked and fed 
to the fowls. If hand-picking is objectionable, 
the leaves may be cut with a sickle or scythe. 
If cut a few inches from the ground, a second or 
third crop will often be produced from one seed- 
ing. 

Clover hay. — If green food is not at hand for 
winter feeding, a good substitute may be found 
in steamed clover hay, particularly if it is mixed 
with the soft or ground grain food. It is import- 
ant to have this hay finely cut. If a steamer 
is not at hand, the hay may be satisfactorily 
treated by putting it in a tight vessel and pour- 
ing on boiling water sufficient to moisten all the 
cut hay, permitting it to remain tightly covered 
over night. 

Meat foods. — Poultrymen find it to their ad- 
vantage to imitate the natural food of the fowls 
and to furnish some meat food. Fowls that are 
given a wide range in the summer time feed 
largely on insects and earthworms; but during 



Meat Food 



169 



the winter months, and when fowls are confined 
in comparatively small houses and yards, it will 
be best to feed meat in some form. "Vegetable 
foods, even though furnishing equal amounts of 
all nutrients and in the proportions considered 
suitable, are shown to be much inferior to animal 
foods furnishing the same 
amounts of nutrients and in 
the same proportions."* 

Fresh bones, which may be 
obtained from meat markets, 
if finely cut with bone-cutters 
(Figs. 53, 54), make one of 
the best, if not the best, of 
meat foods for laying hens. 
This is also excellent for little 
chickens. Many poultrymen, 
however, cannot depend upon 
the local meat markets for 
their supply, particularly dur- 
ing the warm weather. After the bones have 
become tainted they should be rejected as un- 
fit for poultry food. When fresh bones can- 
not be obtained, animal meal may be relied on 
for satisfactory results. Only meal that is guar- 
anteed wholesome should be procured. A good 
quality will generally contain about 10 per cent 
of nitrogen. This meal should be dry enough 

* Eighth Annual Report, Mass. Hatch Experiment Station. 




Fig. 53. A bone-cutter. 



170 



Farm Poultry 




Fig. 54. Another style of bone- 
cutter. 



to keep well for several seasons if necessity 
requires. 

Canned meat foods, specially prepared for 
poultry, are on the market. These give satisfac- 
tory results under ordi- 
nary conditions, but are 
usually found to be some- 
what more expensive than 
the animal meals. Some 
of the so-called poultry 
meat foods that are pre- 
served in tin cans, consist 
largely of liver. 

Shim milk. — Skim milk 
may be substituted, 
wholly or in part, for meat food without a marked 
decrease in egg production, provided the proper 
gi-ain ration is given. In order to substitute milk 
entirely for meat, it will probably be necessary 
to give the fowls milk to drink instead of water 
and to mix soft food with the milk. If milk be 
depended upon entirely to take the place of meat, 
somewhat greater rkill will probably be required 
in feeding than if a good quality of animal meal 
is fed. 

Grit. — It is necessary that fowls be supplied 
with some kind of grit, which is used in the giz- 
zard for grinding the food. Fowls at all ages, 
from the little chicken just hatched to the mature 



Kinds of Grit 171 

fowl, require grit if hard food is given them. 
When soft food alone is supplied, little or no 
grit will be required. During the summer months, 
when fowls have a large range, they are usually 
able to find sufficient grit for themselves. Small 
pieces of stone, cinders, etc., are eaten. Crushed 
limestone and crushed granite also answer the 
purpose admirably when it is necessary to supply 
grit artificially. Crushed granite, on account of 
its excessive hardness, is more durable than pieces 
of softer material. There are many poultry supply 
houses that keep crushed granite in various sizes, 
suitable for all kinds of poultry. Crushed oyster 
shells will also furnish material for grinding the 
food, although they are not recommended solely 
for this purpose. 

"Long or sharp splinters of glass or dry bone 
should be avoided. The size of particles of grit 
had, for hens, better be larger than that of a 
kernel of wheat and should be smaller than that 
of a kernel of corn. An unlimited supply of 
pounded glass has been attended with no bad 
result when the food and other grit available 
to the fowls contained an abundance of lime, 
but, when the food was deficient in lime and no 
other grit was attainable, hens ate an injuriously 
large amount of glass." * 

Lime. — Many experiments and also chemical 

* Biillf'tin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



172 Farm Poultry 

analyses of foods and of eggs show that there is 
not sufficient lime consumed by the fowls, in 
ordinary poultry foods, to form the shells of eggs 
produced by laying hens, particularly when they 
are producing eggs most abundantly. It is there- 
fore necessary to supply lime, in some form, to 
laying hens. Crushed oyster shells are recom- 
mended for this purpose. It is found to be sat- 
isfactory to place the crushed shells before the 
fowls in such a manner that they may eat the 
amount needed, and it is usually safe to rely 
on the judgment of the fowls in this respect. 
Some poultry men, however, mix crushed oyster 
shells with the soft food in addition to the supply 
which should be kept before them all the time. 
"The feeding of oyster shells during the laying 
season, when they can be cheaply obtained, 
is recommended. One pound will contain lime 
enough for the shells of about seven dozens of 
eggs. Fine gravel containing limestone will prob- 
ably as well supply the deficiency of lime existing 
in most foods, but the use of some sharper grit 
with it may be of advantage."* 

Salt. — A little salt is undoubtedly beneficial and 
necessary, but it is poisonous if taken in large 
quantities. Instances are frequently reported of 
fowls being injured by eating salt. They are 
undoubtedly frequently misled in eating it, sup- 

* Bulletin No. 38, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Amount of Salt Necessary 173 

posing that they are eating grit. Rock salt is 
particularly dangerous on this account. Some 
instances have been known of fowls being poi- 
soned by eating salt fish which had been care- 
lessly thrown where they could gain access to 
it. When fowls have a wide range they eat 
grass, insects, and many other things that already 
furnish salt in some quantity. This may explain 
why it is not necessary to feed salt under these 
conditions. 

Experiments made at the New York Agricultural 
Experiment Station showed that salt was not in- 
jurious in quantities below .063 ounce per day for 
each hen (that is, nearly one -half pint per day for 
100 hens) . The following, taken from Bulletin No. 
39, gives results of the experiment: "The number 
of eggs laid during this trial is of no great signifi- 
cance, as it was about the end of the laying sea- 
son and the hens were old; but, inasmuch as the 
yield of eggs was twice as great from the hens 
having salt, while it was mixed with the food, it 
would appear that not enough was fed to very 
injuriously affect egg production. The salt used 
was ordinary barrel salt, although not coarse. 
Should rock salt be exposed, or salt that contained 
large crystals or fragments as large as the par- 
ticles of gravel and grit eaten by hens, it would 
of course not take long for a fatal amount to be 
swallowed. For mature fowls it is probable that 



174 Farm Poultry 

salt at the rate of one ounce per day for 100 fowls 
could, under ordinary conditions, be fed without 
injury." 

Sulfur. — Sulfur is generally recognized as a 
blood purifier but should not be fed in any con- 
siderable quantity unless its action is well under- 
stood and precautions are taken to guard against 
any undesirable results. It is generally recognized 
that fowls take cold easily when fed sulfur. 

Pepper. — Pepper is sometimes given to fowls 
suffering from cold or in the first stages of roup. 
It is the general opinion, however, that it is 
not necessary to feed it if the proper conditions 
are maintained. 

How to feed. — If those who have the responsi- 
bility of providing food for fowls and other stock 
will bear in mind that food is given for a two- 
fold purpose, it will help them to appreciate the 
importance of a bountiful supply of the proper 
kind. Food sustains the physical organization of 
the fowl and furnishes material for a useful prod- 
uct in the form of eggs or meat, or both. It 
may also be considered largely as the basis of 
improvement in breeds and varieties, and is often 
spoken of as the cause, and breed as the effect. 
While this may not be strictly true in all cases, 
yet all authorities believe that food has been a 
most potent factor in the improvement of breeds 
— if not the chief cause. 



Food and Egg Production 175 

The profit in feeding comes from the food 
consumed in excess of that required for the 
maintenance of the body. If the individual 
makes good use of the food consumed, that 
which is not required for maintenance should 
be directed chiefly toward the production of mer- 
chantable articles. It should not be held, how- 
ever, that all of the food consumed in excess of 
that required to maintain the body may be devoted 
to the production of eggs or meat. As the ration 
is increased, the work required of the fowls to 
digest and assimilate this food is also increased. 
So no matter whether the animal be a hen or a 
cow, the physical organization is required to do 
more work on a full ration than on a light one, 
and food is required to supply energy for this 
increased work. 

There is little danger of overfeeding laying 
hens if the proper kind of food is given. The 
difficulty lies in not being able to secure fowls 
that are sufficiently strong to digest and assimi- 
late enough food to give the gi^eatest profit. A 
strong tendency toward Qgg laying, a vigorous 
constitution, and an abundance of suitable food, 
are three prime essentials for profitable Qg^ pro- 
duction. Other things being equal, those fowls 
that are able to digest and assimilate the largest 
quantities of food will prove the most profitable. 

It is the practice of the most successful 



176 Farm Poultry 

poultrymen to feed a part of the daily grain 
ration ground, and moistened with either milk or 
water. It is held to be more economical to do 
a part of the grinding by steam or water power 
than to require it all to be done within the body 
of the fowl. In other words, water or some 
other power is thought to be cheaper than the 
muscular power of the laying hen. It is true 
that the hen is required to take considerable ex- 
ercise, but this exercise does not materially aid 
in grinding the food. 

Some experiments have been made which tend 
to show that there is considerable to be gained 
in feeding ground or soft food. The following 
is taken from an experiment station publica- 
tion:* ^'Two pens of laying hens, one of a large 
and the other of a small breed, having a ration 
the grain of which was whole, ate during their 
second year somewhat more food at a little 
greater cost than two similar pens having a 
ration in which half the grain was ground and 
moistened. 

"Cochin hens having the whole grain ration 
laid much better than those having the ground 
grain, although neither lot laid at a profitable 
rate during the second year. Leghorn , hens 
having a ration in which the grain was whole 
consumed on the average for two years over 20 

* Bulletin No. 106, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Ground Food 111 

per cent more food for the same ^gg production 
than did similar hens having half the grain in 
their ration ground and moistened. The hens 
having whole grain had on the average for two 
years 6.4 pounds of water -free food for every 
pound of eggs produced. Those having ground 
grain had on the average for two years 5.3 
pounds of water- free food for every pound of 
eggs produced." 

Poultrymen do not agree as to the time of 
day when the soft food should be fed. Some 
hold that such food should be given in the 
morning, for the reason that the fowls have been 
on the perches during the night and have largely 
digested the food which was consumed the day 
before, and consequently have comparatively 
empty crops and digestive organs. In order that 
the morning meal may be rapidly and easily di- 
gested they feed only ground and moistened 
grain. They also hold that, if the fowls are to 
be fed three times a day, whole grain should 
be fed at noon and at night. Other careful 
observers maintain that whole grain should 
be given in the morning and that the ground 
food should be given at noon. It is probably 
more important to feed a part of the grain food 
in a ground or soft condition than it is to feed 
this food at any particular time of day. 

All poultrymen believe that it is important to 



178 Farm Poultry 

give the laying hens considerable exercise, par- 
ticularly during the winter months, and when they 
are more or less closely confined. This may be 
accomplished, in part, by requiring them to 
scratch in the litter for their grain food. 

Equal parts of corn and oats ground, mixed 
with an equal weight of wheat bran and fine 
middlings, make an excellent soft food when 




Fig.. 55. Feed trough protected by a revolving rod. 

moistened with milk or water. That is, the 
bran and fine middlings together constitute one- 
half the weight of the ration. The proportion of 
bran and fine middlings may be varied somewhat. 
If the mixture appears too sticky, less middlings 
and more bran should be used. It is usually 
preferred thoroughly wet; that is, enough milk 
or water should be added to the ground grain 
to wet all of the grain after it is thoroughly 
stirred. It will be necessary to feed this food in 



Oround Food and Feeding Troughs 179 

troughs. Considerable ingenuity has been exer- 
cised in devising convenient troughs that will 
keep the food clean. A swinging trough, or one 
protected by an easy -turning rod, as shown in 
the illustrations, will answer the purpose very 
well. See Figs. 55 and 56. Any safe and con- 
venient arrangement that will prevent the fowls 
from perching on the sides of the troughs, will 
meet the requirements of a satisfactory device. 




Fig. 56. A swinging feed trough. 



Many poultry men prefer to feed animal meal 
in this soft food. From one to two pounds of 
animal meal per day should suffice for twenty- 
five hens, particularly if milk is used to moisten 
the ground grain. A little linseed meal, which 
is particularly valuable during the moulting pe- 
riod, may also be added. Horsemen have long 
known that when animals are shedding their 
coats, a little linseed meal added to their ration 
hastens the shedding of the old coat and gives 
more luster to the new, and so poultrymen find 
that a little of this meal during the moulting 



180 Farm Poultry 

period aids in the production of the new coat of 
feathers. 

The whole grain should be fed once or twice a 
day and scattered in the litter during the cold 
months or whenever the fowls do not have ample 
opportunity to take exercise out of doors. This 
grain may be scattered in the litter at noon and 
given in such quantity that the fowls will eat 
it up clean. In fact, they should not be given 
quite all they want to eat. They should be made 
to scratch over the litter and pick out the last 
kernels. At night, about an hour before they go 
on the perches, the last meal of the day may be 
given them. This should be given in such quan- 
tities that it will all be consumed and still afford 
the fowls about all they care to eat. In other 
words, they should go on the perches at night 
with full crops. During the night they have 
nothing to do except to digest and assimilate 
the evening meal. 

Litter, — Straw, either cut or whole, makes a 
good litter for poultry houses for both winter and 
summer. Hay may also be used for this purpose 
if it is more convenient or cheaper than straw. 
Buckwheat hulls are preferred by many on ac- 
count of cheapness. In the vicinity of mills, 
where large quantities of buckwheat are floured, 
buckwheat hulls may be obtained cheaply. 
Shredded corn fodder makes satisfactory litter. 



Food and Exercise 181 

although it is somewhat more expensive and 
answers the purpose no better than straw. Dur- 
ing the winter months, the floor of the poultry 
house should be covered to a depth of a few 
inches with some kind of litter. This litter 
should be changed whenever it becomes soiled 
or damp. 

FEEDING FOE MEAT OR FATTENING 

Feeding fowls for meat production may prop- 
erly be discussed under two rather distinct heads 
so far as exercise is concerned: fattening ma- 
ture fowls, and feeding young growing fowls that 
are to be sent to the market when a few months 
old. Mature fowls will require little or no ex-fi^'^"^^^ 
ercise during the process of fattening, while rqS^u^ 
young fowls that are growing rapidly will re- >»^^^ 
quire considerable exercise in order to keep them 
in a healthy and vigorous condition, except per- 
haps for a short time during the last of the 
fattening period, which is sometimes called "the 
finishing." 

Whenever a choice quality of meat is to be 
produced, little or no exercise should be given 
for a few weeks immediately preceding the kill- 
ing. When the fowl is shut up or closely con- 
fined, the muscles soften and the flesh becomes 
more tender. It is conceded by those who most 



182 Farm Poultry 

highly prize tender fiesh that close confinement, 

without exercise, greatly improves the quality. 

It is also true that fowls under these conditions 

take on fat rapidly if the close confinement is not 

continued too long. Little exercise with plentj^ 

of pure air and an abundance of soft food, are 

L.t^^ ,^ among the chief essentials for economical fatten- 

/ ing. If it is desired to fatten fowls as quickly 

fi/n^^/^'^^ possible, the ration should consist largely of 

' ^^^ corn. G-round oats, wheat, buckwheat, and bar- 

., ley may also be used to some extent. A variety 

f of foods undoubtedly will serve a good purpose 

in maintaining a good appetite somewhat longer 

than could be maintained with but one or two 

kinds of grain. After fowls have been kept for 

some time on soft food, whole grain cannot form 

a considerable portion of their ration without a 

loss. The organs for grinding and digesting hard 

food have been so long in disuse that they are 

quite unfitted to perform the office required of 

them when hard or whole grain is provided. 

The kind of food and the form in which it is 
to be given will depend somewhat on the kind of 
fowls. Some successful poultrymen, who make a 
specialty of young fowls of fine quality, are ac- 
customed to feed animal meal in such proportion 
that it will form 10 to 20 per cent of the total 
ration. No one would think of using so large a 
proportion of animal meal in compounding a ra- 



Uniformity in Size Desirable 183 

tion for fattening matured fowls. In one case, the 
object is to produce large quantities of tender 
flesh; in the other, to improve the quality of the 
flesh by confinement, and to induce the fowls to 
fatten readily. ^f^ 

Separate the sexes. — The sexes should be sep- 
arated before the fattening period begins. It is 
always advisable to have the individuals as nearly 
uniform as possible as regards age and size. Un- 
even flocks are not nearly so satisfactory to feed 
as uniform ones and are quite as unsatisfactory to 
sell, particularly if they are sent to market alive. 

If it is desired to fatten cocks or cockerels 
that show a disposition to fight, they should be 
confined in coops which are provided with slat 
bottoms or bottoms made of poles near enough 
together so that the fowls cannot drop between 
them. These coops should be placed at some dis- 
tance from the ground, so that the droppings will 
not foul them. While attempts may be made to 
fight, yet as one or both of the combatants w^ill 
almost surely step between the slats the combat 
will not be carried far. 

Cra^nming .—The English and French resort to^ i 

the system of forced feeding, known as c rarnm i n g J tn k ^woA 
for the production of the choicest poultry for the 
London and Paris markets. The English learned 
this process from the French, and now carry it 
on to a large extent in some parts of southern 



184 Farm Poultry 

England. The Heathfield district in Sussex 
county, England, is noted for the large quan- 
tities of poultry that are fattened for the London 
markets by this process. Young birds four or five 
months old are placed in coops, which are raised 
about three feet from the ground. These coops 
have slat sides and bottoms and are protected 




Fig. 57. An English method of arranging coops, where 
cramming is practiced. 

from the weaiher by a roof. Each coop is large 
enough to hold comfortably four or five birds. 
See Fig. 57. For the first ten days after placing 
the fowls in the coops, they are fed twice a day 
soft food from little troughs suspended within 
easy reach. After they have eaten all they will, 
the troughs are removed and no food is offered 
until the next meal. The food consists largely of 
ground oats, with the hulls removed, and ground 



I 



Cramming 



185 



barley. To this is added a little tallow so that 
each fowl may receive about a teaspoonful a day. 
The fowls are fed in this manner for about ten 
days, at the end of which time they will not eat 
so much on account of loss of appetite. They 
are then fattened 
by the cramming 
process, the food 
being forced into 
the crop by means 
of a machine. 
Fig. 58 illustrates 
a cramming ma- 
chine similar to 
those used in the 
great poultry dis- 
tricts of England. 
The food is mixed 
with milk or water 
to the consistency 
of thick porridge; 
that is, just about 
as thick as it will pour well. This is placed in 
a receptacle or hopper in the machine and is 
forced through a rubber tube into the crop of the 
chicken. This tube is forced down the chicken's 
neck and a light pressure on a lever with the foot 
forces the food, while the hand on the outside of 
the crop will detect the proper quantity. Men 






Fig. 58. An English cramming machine. 



186 Farm Poultry 

operating this machine become very skilful. A 
good operator can feed thirty dozen fowls per 
hour. This cramming process is continued for 
about ten days, when the fowls are dressed and 
sent to market. During the major part of the fat- 
tening season the coops are placed out of doors. 
See Fig. 57. When the weather becomes too cool, 
indoor coops are used. 

Before fowls are placed in fattening pens they 
should be given a thorough dressing of sulfur or 
some other insecticide to kill the vermin. This is 
particularly essential, as the fowls kept in coops 
have no opportunity to combat these pests. Lay- 
ing hens and other fowls should be provided with 
dust baths, but when fowls are placed in close 
confinement for fattening, it is not feasible to 
provide baths. Cleanliness is of the utmost im- 
portance for these confined fowls. The coops or 
cages of fattening fowls should not be allowed to 
become filthy, neither should they be too hot in 
summer or too cool in winter. 

The French and English use oats and buck- 
wheat largely as fattening foods. They prefer 
fowls having light- colored flesh with white skin. 
Americans prefer yellow skin and flesh. Corn is, 
therefore, to be preferred in this country as a 
fattening food to wheat, barley, or buckwheat. It 
not only produces the desired product but is the 
cheapest food that the market affords. 



CHAPTER X 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 

Whethek it is best to use incubators on 
farms where only small flocks of fowls are kept, 
is often a difficult question to decide, particu- 
larly for those who are familiar with only the 
natural method of incubation. As the adoption 
of modern methods includes not only the pur- 
chase of an incubator and a brooder to care 
for the young fowls, but also carries with it a 
marked change in their management, it is a ques- 
tion of considerable importance. 

INCUBATOKS 

Before an incubator is purchased for the 
farm, it should be understood that it will be 
necessary to devote more time and labor to its 
management than is usually given to natural in- 
cubation. Even the most successful and experi- 
enced poultrymen feel that there is yet much for 
them to learn, in order to accomplish the best 
results with modern appliances for hatching and 
rearing the various kinds of farm poultry. The 

(187) 



188 Farm Poultry 

successful management of incubators requires 
close attention and the best thought of the 
operator. In other words, it is a business that 
should be thoroughly learned. It should not be 
entered into with the idea that it is a simpler 
or easier method of hatching eggs than the older 
and rather slow method of natural incubation. 

If only small flocks, consisting of from fifty to 
one hundred fowls, are to be kept, probably it 
will not pay the farmer who expects but a small 
cash revenue from his fowls to attempt artificial 
incubation. Particularly is this true if his fowls 
belong to one of the so-called general -purpose 
breeds. On the other hand, if it is desired to 
keep a larger flock which consists principally or 
entirely of one of the distinctively Qgg breeds, it 
undoubtedly will be best in the end if the art of 
artificial incubation is thoroughly learned. The 
natural processes of incubation are too slow to 
meet the demands of the modern poultry- keeper 
who is extensively engaged in the business. 
When one undertakes to produce eggs exclu- 
sively and desires as many as possible in the 
winter, pullets will, of course, be largely kept 
for this purpose, and these cannot be depended 
on for natural incubation. Under these con- 
ditions, it will be advisable to resort to the use 
of incubators and brooders, by means of which 
the flock can be maintained. It would be quite 



Incubation 189 

impossible for the poultrymen of modern times 
to maintain large flocks of young birds for egg 
production and rear chickens by the natural 
method. 

AKTinCIAL INCUBATION 

The art of hatching eggs by means of arti- 
ficial heat has been known for a long time. 
Early travelers in Egypt gave accounts of ovens 
that were used for hatching the eggs of ducks, 
geese, and chickens. Heat was supplied by fer- 
menting manure. Remains of these ovens are 
said to have been seen in comparatively recent 
times. It is said that the French became inter- 
ested in artificial incubation as early as the fif- 
teenth century, but not until the latter part of 
the eighteenth century was use made of hot 
water as a means of conveying heat for artificial 
incubation. From this time until the middle of 
the nineteenth century, comparatively little ad- 
vancement was made in the construction of incu- 
bators. Since 1870 many improvements have 
been made and a large number of incubators 
have been placed on the market. 

In the manufacture of the modern incubator, 
the idea has been largely to imitate nature. As 
tlie hen applies heat above the egg, so nearly all 
incubators apply heat to the egg- chamber from 
above. In natural incubation the hen provides 



190 Farm Poultry 

a nest or shallow receptacle for the eggs, usually 
on the ground. After laying a number of eggs, 
the hen becomes '^ broody" and commences to sit, 
or incubate. At this time the under part of the 
hen's body is more abundantly supplied with 
blood than during the laying or moulting pe- 
riods. In other words, what is known as the 
organ of incubation, or plexus, most fully de- 
velops at this time. This consists of a network 
of arterial blood-vessels, near the surface of the 
body, which bring greater heat to the eggs than 
would otherwise be supplied. In order to per- 
fect systems of artificial incubation, many per- 
sons have made a close study of the natural 
method and have been led to adopt some devices 
or practices which were accidental or necessary 
to the hen, but not essential to perfect incu- 
bation. The fact that hens sometimes leave the 
nest in the early morning to search for food, 
when the grass is still wet with dew, and upon 
returning moisten their eggs with their wet 
feathers, has led some to sprinkle the eggs at 
various periods during the process of incubation. 
This, however, has been shown to be unnec- 
essary, except possibly in localities where the air 
is very dry. Poultry men have also learned by 
close observation that, in the nest, particularly 
as the period of incubation advances, the eggs 
are arranged mostly with the large end upper- 






Incubation and Tnciihators 191 

most or toward the outer side of the nest. This 
is probably due to the form of the nest and the 
fact that the small end of the Qgg is heavier in 
proportion to its size than the large end; that 
is, the center of gravity approaches the small 
end, which is, as incubation progresses, due to 
the development of the air-chamber in the large 
end. The fact that the eggs are arranged with 
the large end uppermost, has led some persons 
to place the eggs in the incubator trays in a 
similar position. Without doubt, the position of 
the eggs does not have any particular influence 
on the hatching. 

Many tests have been made to determine the 
actual temperature of eggs when natural incu- 
bation is taking place. These tests show a con- 
siderable variation until the ninth or tenth day. 
Until this time the eggs seldom reach 100°.* 
Although the temperature of the fowl is usually 
above 106°, yet the temperature of the eggs is 
seldom raised above 103°, owing to the fact that 
heat is applied only on one side. 

Selection of an incubator. — An inexperienced 
person should exercise the same care and judg- 
ment in selecting an incubator that would be 
exercised when purchasing a mowing machine or 
other expensive implement. It is no longer 
thought that one particular kind of mowing 

*" Incubation and Its Natural Laws," Cyphers. 



192 



Farm Poultry 



machine is far superior to all others. Sim- 
ilarly, it may be said that there are many 
good incubators on the market. A well-made 
machine, similar to those in use by successful 




Fig. 59. One hundred-and-eighty-egg incubator. 

poultrymen, will probably give satisfaction after 
the business is once thoroughly learned. It should 
be remembered that machines do not think, and 
that the good judgment of the operator is one 
of the most important essentials in artificial iu- 
cubation. While incubators are often placed 
before the public with somewhat flaring an- 



Care of Incubators 



193 



nouncements, stating that the operation of the 
machine is most simple, it should not be for- 
gotten that the most successful operators are 
those who have given the business their best 




Fig. 60. One-hnndred-egg ineiibator. 

thought and attention throughout a long ex- 
perience. 

While there is much to be learned about arti- 
ficial incubation, yet the beginner cannot afford 
to ignore the knowledge which has been gained 
by the experience of others. Manufacturers of 
incubators have studied their own machines more 



194 Farm Poultry 

or less carefully and are, therefore, able to give 
some valuable information. Those who are about 
to invest in an incubator should make the most 
of the information given by manufacturers and 
others, and expect to learn many valuable lessons 
by their own experience. 

Placing the incubator. — On many farms it is 
not easy to prepare a suitable place for an in- 
cubator. In selecting a location four essentials 
should be kept in mind, namely, ventilation, even 
temperature of room, convenience, and freedom 
from danger of fire. Most incubators are heated 
by lamps, and if they are placed in a small 
room, considerable ventilation will be required 
in order to keep the air pure. 

An even temperature is of considerable im- 
portance, although some tests with modern in- 
cubators tend to show that the best hatches do 
not necessarily result from the most uniform 
temperature of the ^^g chamber. Uniform tem- 
perature is desired, however, and is easiest to 
maintain when the temperature of the room in 
which the incubator is placed varies least. 

It is important that the incubator be placed 
in a room in which the air is in a normal con- 
dition,— that is, neither too dry nor saturated 
with moisture. The ideal condition as to purity 
will approximate the air out-of-doors where 
there is a free circulation. The air should also 



Inciibator Rooms 195 

contain at least a moderate amount of mois- 
tm-e. The amount of moisture in the atmos- 
phere should control, to some extent, the venti- 
lation of the incubator. It is desirable that a 
considerable proportion of the moisture of the 
egg be evaporated during the process of incuba- 
tion. If the air is very dry a little ventilation 
will be sufficient to secure the desired evapora- 
tion, while a moist atmosphere would require 
much more ventilation to secure the same result. 
The moist air of a wet cellar, which contains 
decaying fruit and vegetables, is not suited to 
•incubation. 

Whenever kerosene oil lamps are kept contin- 
ually burning for weeks at a time, as they are 
in incubators, there is some danger from fire. 
It is true that the modern incubator lamps are 
well adapted to the purpose, but the element of 
danger from fire cannot be said to be wholly 
eliminated so long as these lamps are permitted 
to burn in wooden buildings without the watch- 
fulness of an attendant. 

The convenience of an incubator room is prob- 
ably one of the least of the essentials, yet it is 
of so much importance that it should not be 
wholly overlooked. Everything considered, prob- 
ably a dry, airy cellar or half- basement will make 
the most desirable location for an incubator on 
the farm. Many incubator rooms have been con- 



196 Farm Poultry 

structed in excavations which were sufficiently 
deep to permit of most of the room being below 
the surface of the ground. See Figs. 61 and 62. 
This method will undoubtedly secure an even 
temperature, but the room is likely to be venti- 
lated with difficulty unless special provisions are 
made. During the warm days of spring and early 




Fig. 61. Au incubator liouse— Rliode Island Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

summer it is somewhat difficult to ventilate a 
basement without causing drafts, which would 
interfere with the lamps and prevent them from 
burning steadily. An incubator room should be 
comparatively free from drafts. 

Care of incubators* — Incubators should receive 
the same care and careful adjustment that are 
given to other delicate machines. The accurate 
working of the incubator will depend very largely 



Running the Inciihator 



197 



on the treatment it receives from the operator 
or attendant. Whoever has charge of an incuba- 
tor should plan to give it a careful inspection at 
regular intervals. It should not be necessary, 
however, to visit an incubator oftener than twice 
a day. It is always wejl for the beginner to run 
the incubator for a few days before filling it with 





k^ 


J 




•> 'iff 


f 


''':^-:^^^mm 


i-^ 


*^:'^- 

i? 



Fig. 62. An incubator building with poultry house attached- 
Cornell University. 

eggs, in order that it may be properly adjusted, 
and also to give the operator a little experience 
before risking loss. 

After the machine is adjusted and the atten- 
dant has gained some knowledge of operating it, 
the eggs may be put in, although it is well to 
place them in a warm room for a few hours 
previous, to prevent so great a change in the 
temperature of the incubator as would result from 



198 Farm Poultry 

the use of cold eggs. It will be of some advan- 
tage to the beginner to keep temperature records 
of the machine by means of both an incubator 
thermometer and a registering thermometer. 
These records will sometimes be of value in reg- 
ulating the machine for subsequent hatches. 

BROODEKS 

If artificial incubation is employed, some 
provision must be made for the care of the 
little chickens as soon as they leave the incuba- 
tor. Various kinds of machines have been de- 
vised for this purpose, which vary considerably 
in regard to efficiency, but some kind of an 
artificial brooder must be provided: From the 
great variety of brooders on the market the 
farmer or poultryman has an opportunity to make 
a selection according to his wants and best judg- 
ment. Brooders vary greatly in size, as some of 
the smaller ones accommodate no more than fifty 
chickens, while the larger ones are devised to 
furnish accommodations for many hundreds of 
young fowls. For convenience, we may separate 
the various kinds of brooders into two classes. 
These classes represent two entirely different 
systems of furnishing heat and providing for 
the comforts of the little chickens. One class 
supplies heat by means of hot water pipes. See 




Fig. G:i. 



House for brooders and iiieubators ; also breeding peus- 
New York Agricultural Experiment Station 




Fig. 64. Brooder house — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 




Fig. 65. A small brooder house — Cornell University. 



200 



Farm Poultry 



Fig. 66. Brooders of this kind are capable of 
extension and of providing heat for many hun- 
dreds of young chickens. The other system is 
represented fairly well by small portable brood- 
ers, which supply heat by radiation from hot air 




Fig. 66. Hot water pipe brooders, covers of three lifted, man raising 
the fourth — New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 

or from hot water tanks. These are usually 
heated by small oil lamps or by gas jets. The 
pipe system is most extensively used by poultry- 
men who rear fowls on a somewhat extensive 
scale. One fire, producing the heat for many 
hundred chickens, gives to this system an ad- 
vantage over the smaller brooders which require 



Essentials of a Good Brooder 201 

a separate lamp for each small flock. Oil lamps 
require close attention, and even then they are 
likely to give more or less trouble by some im- 
perfection in the burner or deposit of soot or 
carbon in some parts of the flue, which may 
lead to overheating and, in some cases, may 
produce disastrous results. Brooders, and even 
poultry houses, have been set on fire by careless 
or improper handling of brooder lamps. 

Some of the most important requisites of a 
good brooder may be enumerated as follows: 

1. Capable of maintaining a proper tempera- 

ture. 

2. Be easily cleaned. 

3. Provide good ventilation. 

4. Of such form that all the chickens may 

readily be seen. 

5. Must be dry. 

6. Economical of heat. 

7. Easy of construction. 

(1) A satisfactory brooder must maintain a 
proper temperature for delicate little chickens. 
It will be necessary to maintain an even tem- 
perature, from 90° to 100°, for the first week. 
After that a somewhat lower temperature will 
be required. Breeds of fowls that feather early 
in life do not require so high a temperature 
in the brooder after two or three weeks. The 
temperature should always be so high that the 



202 



Farm Poultry 



chickens are not inclined to huddle together to 
keep warm. Huddling indicates that the tem- 
perature is too low for best results. The amateur 




Fig. 67. An outdoor brooder. 

poultryman finds it difficult to overcome the ten- 
dency toward bowel disorders in little chickens. 
One of the potent causes of these disorders is a 
cold brooder or frequent chills. 

(2) A brooder should be easily cleaned. There 
are several reasons for this. The labor of clean- 
ing is an important item. The time occupied is 
frequently of considerable importance, and then, 
if the brooder is not readily cleaned, it is 
much more likely to be neglected, particularly 
during the busiest seasons of the year. A brooder 
should be so constructed that it may be swept 
clean, preferably with an ordinary broom. The 
floor should be kept littered, so that all the 
manure may be readily swept out. As filth and 



Essentials of a Good Brooder 



203 



dampness are two great causes of failure with 
the amateur poultryman, it is of the greatest 
importance that poultry houses and brooders be 
kept as clean as possible. 

(3) The air in a brooder will become foul if 
not changed frequently. Usually, when suffi- 
cient heat is supplied to give proper temperature, 
ventilation is also secured; but occasionallj^i :the 
source of heat is barely sufficient to maintain the 
required temperature with the least possible ven- 
tilation. Then, in order to keep the chickens 
warm, ventilation must be cut off. Pure air 
should be supplied at all times. It should be 
rememl3ered that little chickens have a high tem- 




Fig. 68. An out-of-door brooder. 



perature, that they breathe rapidly, and that the 
supply of pure air is of the greatest importance 
to them. 

(4) It is important to have the brooder so 



204 Farm Poultry 

arranged that all the chickens may readily be 
seen by the attendant. If dark and inconvenient 
corners are permitted to exist, weak chickens 
find these nooks a place of refuge, and may es- 
cape the attention of the attendant. As it is 
important that all of the chickens be seen at 
each feeding, the ease of thorough inspection 
is of considerable importance in the care of 
brooders. 

(5) A brooder must be dry. At no time in 
the life of the hen is she so sensitive to mois- 
ture as in the early stages of her existence. 
All parts of the brooder should be kept dry and 
clean. Whenever the floor of the brooder becomes 
moist, some means should be taken at once to cor- 
rect the evil. There should be sufficient bottom 
heat or enough heat near the floor to keep it dry. 
Too much bottom heat is objected to by many 
poultrymen. A somewhat popular belief is held 
that bottom heat, if considerable, is likely to pro- 
duce what is known as "leg weakness." 

(6) It is of some importance to have a brooder 
that is economical of heat, or, in other words, 
one that makes good use of the fuel consumed. 
The provision of fuel is an item of expense. 

(7) It is of considerable importance that the 
brooder be simply constructed. Machines that 
are more or less difficult to build are necessarily 
more expensive than those that are easy of con- 



Brooders 205 

struction. Then, too, some parts of the appliance 
may reqmre renewal, and if the brooder is easy 
of construction the farmer or poultryman may 
readily perform the labor which otherwise would 
require an additional expense in sending the ma- 
chine to the factory for repairs. 

The amateur should bear in mind that it is 
necessary for each person to learn the business for 
himself by study and experience, that there are no 
hard and fast rules for the selection and operation 
of the various kinds of brooders. One person 
may succeed well with a brooder that would prove 
unsatisfactory in the hands of another. One per- 
son may learn how best to operate a particular 
machine, and, from his study of the condition 
of the brooder and chickens, soon learn how to 
remedy the most serious difficulties, whereas 
another, through a lack of sufficient knowledge 
of that particular brooder, would fail to secure 
the essentials in rearing young fowls. There are 
many brooders that are capable of producing good 
results if the proper attention be given them; 
but the manner of caring for the young, which 
find in them a home, is of greater relative impg^i:- 
tance than the particular construction of the ma- 
chine. 

Home-made brooders. — It is often desirable and 
sometimes necessary to construct at home a con- 
siderable portion of the appliances used in the 



206 



Farm Poultry 



modern poultry yard. Sometimes material is at 
hand that may be turned to good advantage in the 
construction of machines. It sometimes hap- 
pens that more chickens are hatched than were 
provided for and an extra brooder is needed for 
the emergency. 

Satisfactory brooders may be made at home, at 
a small expense for materials, by any one who is 




A home-made brooder in cross-section. 



able to work well with the most common of car- 
penters' tools. Dry goods boxes may be utilized to 
good advantage. If a part of a large dry goods box 
is placed bottom upwards so that the bottom will 
form a level floor about a foot from the ground, a 
good foundation for a cheap brooder is established. 
In the center of this a square or circular opening 
is cut, into which is fitted a box of tin which is also 
placed bottom up. A straight- sided tin bucket or 
pail may be used instead of the tin box. If the 
former is used, a circular opening should be made 



Home Made Brooders 207 

to fit the pail. In the bottom of this pail (which 
is bottom upwards) should be fitted a small tube 
of iron or tin to carry off the smoke and gases 
from the lamp which is placed underneath. On 
the top of the tin box or pail is placed a cover of 
light boards which supports woolen or felt cur- 
tains. The illustration (Fig. 69), which shows 
an indoor brooder in cross section, may aid in 
the proper understanding of this device. 

The chickens should be confined by a board 
railing for several days, after which they may 
be given an opportunity to take more exercise 
than would be permitted within the brooder. 
Little chickens should have a chance to return 
to the brooder whenever they desire to do so. 
The illustration shows a board railing, in section, 
which will effectually confine the chickens until 
they require more exercise than the brooder will 
permit. There is also shown an approach which 
will provide a means by which the chicks may 
easily enter and leave the brooder, provided a 
suitable opening be made in the board railing. 
The curtains mentioned above prevent the heat 
from escaping, and provide warm, comfortable 
compartments for the chicks. 



CHAPTER XI 

FEEDING AND CARE OF LITTLE CHICKENS 

In rearing fowls it will be found that the at- 
tention given to little chickens and the manner 
of feeding them are of the greatest importance. 
While it is difficult and probably impossible to 
satisfactorily discuss care and feeding separately, 
yet it may safely be said that care and attention 
are quite as important as the selection of food. 

One successful poultry -feeder may find it to 
his advantage to make use of certain foods, while 
these same foods in the hands of others may be 
so misused that disappointment will surely result. 
To further illustrate, one successful poultryman 
may insist that comparatively little of certain 
kinds of grains should be fed. Other success- 
ful feeders may make a most satisfactory use 
of these objectionable grains. It is for each 
one to learn for himself how to feed to the best 
advantage those foods which are at hand, and 
to learn how to supplement them with others 
if they do not form the desired combination of 
themselves. In preparing food for little chick- 
ens, it will be well to remember that they are 

(208) 



Food for Little Chickens 209 

delicate organisms and require careful handling 
and suitable food, particularly during the first 
few days of their existence, or until they become 
strong enough to seek food for themselves. 

FOOD 

The little chickens will require no food for the 
first twenty-four or forty- eight hours after hatch- 
ing. A mistake is often made in feeding them 
frequently before the system requires food. The 
close observer will readily determine by the action 
of the chickens when food is required. The first 
food should be of such a character that it may 
be readily digested without the aid of grit; con- 
sequently, soft food is preferred. Stale bread 
sopped in milk makes a most excellent food 
for newly hatched chickens. An experienced 
poultry man will recognize that there is no best 
food for little chickens. There are many good 
kinds, if fed judiciously. Again, it may be said 
that the manner of feeding is of the utmost im- 
portance, and that the attendant who fails to 
study closely the condition and wants of the 
little chickens will fail to reach the best results. 
While stale bread dipped in milk makes an 
excellent food, yet it may be so treated as to be 
quite unfit for use. It should be allowed to drain, 
after dipping, so that the bread is only thor- 



210 Farm Poultry 

oughly moistened. In this condition, if finely 
crumbled, it makes a most satisfactory food. On 
the other hand, bread that is fresh and not per- 
fectly baked will be quite too sloppy, if saturated 
with milk, to prove satisfactory. Ground grain 
may be mixed with milk and fed to good advan- 
tage. If this grain is mixed some time before it 
is to be given, it will become more thoroughly 
soaked and will be in a much softer condition 
than if fed immediately after preparing. This is 
thought to be of considerable importance by per- 
sons who have had years of experience in the 
preparation of food for little chickens. It prob- 
ably will not matter materially whether the milk 
is sweet or sour. Sour milk is thought by many 
of the most successful poultry-raisers to be equally 
as desirable as sweet milk. Some, however, pre- 
fer to use chiefly the curd of sour milk in mixing 
the soft food. 

Corn meal, wheat bran, ground oats (with 
the hulls removed), coarse middlings and other 
ground grains may be used to good advantage, 
if fed judiciously. It is not best to give the 
little chick all it can possibly eat and then re- 
quire it to become ravenously hungry before the 
next feeding. Under natural conditions the young 
chickens are seeking food during a large portion 
of the day and at no time are they completely 
gorged. A little food at frequent intervals un- 



Food for Little Chickens 211 

donbtedly is best. If they are given food in 
suitable quantities, feeding from five to seven 
times per day will be found to be none too often 
for young chicks. As they become older it will 
not be necessary to feed so often. The following 
is quoted from an experiment station publication : * 
"If skim milk be added to the ration fed to 
young chickens it will increase the consumption 
of other foods given. The great increase in aver- 
age gain was coincident with the periods when 
the greatest amount of skim milk was consumed. 
Skim milk is especially valuable as a food for 
young chickens during the hot dry weather; and 
becomes of less importance as the chickens grow 
older and the weather becomes cooler." 

Ground grain is preferred to whole or cracked 
grain, and should constitute the chief part of the 
daily ration. Practical poultrymen and experi- 
menters are fairly well agreed on this point. The 
following illustrates : t "A ration consisting mostly 
of ordinary ground grain foods and containing no 
whole grain was more profitably fed to chicks 
than another ration consisting mostly of whole 
grain and containing no ground grain. ... In 
every trial more food was eaten when the ground 
grain was fed than when the whole grain was 
fed." 

* Summary of Bulletin No. 71, Purdue University Agricultural 
Experiment Station. 

t Bulletin No. 126, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. 



212 Farm Poultry 

In addition to the grain given to the chickens, 
it will be necessary to provide some animal food. 
Various mixtures of grain foods have been com- 
pared to mixtures of grain and animal meal, 
but the latter have given the better results. The 
domesticated hen seems to thrive best, in all 
stages of existence, on a ration which consists in 
part of animal food. "A ration in which about 
two -fifths of the protein was supplied by animal 
food was much more profitably fed to chicks 
than another ration supplying an equal amount 
of protein, mostly from vegetable sources, but 
supplemented by skim milk curd."* 

Experiments have demonstrated clearly that the 
ordinary grain foods, as usually fed, do not contain 
sufficient ash to permit the most rapid develop- 
ment of the young. The following briefly states 
the results of somewhat extended experiments at 
the New York Agricultural Experiment Station : t 
" Of two rations which contained practically the 
same proportions of the ordinarily considered 
groups of constituents, but different amounts of 
mineral matter, one wholly of vegetable origin 
proved much inferior for growing chicks to the 
other ration, higher in ash content, containing 
animal food. When the deficiency of mineral 
matter was made good by the addition of bone 

* Bulletin No. 149, New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 
t Summary of Bulletin No. 171. 



Food and Exercise 213 

ash, the vegetable food ration for chicks equaled 
or somewhat surpassed in efficiency the corre- 
sponding ration in which three- eighths of the 
protein was derived from animal food." 

Hard-boiled eggs mixed with ground grain, and 
perhaps a little milk, make a most excellent food. 
This is frequently fed with satisfactory results dur- 
ing the first few days of the chick's existence. 
Infertile eggs which are taken out of the incubator 
whenever the eggs are tested, if properly prepared, 
will furnish an excellent food for little chickens. 
These boiled eggs should be crumbled or chopped 
fine and may be fed alone or mixed with softened 
ground grain. 

Corn may form a considerable portion of the 
ration for young fowls that are growing rapidly. 
Granulated oats make an excellent food for chick- 
ens after they are several days old. These oats 
may be placed in receptacles of such a character 
that the food may be readily accessible at all 
times and yet will not be soiled by tramping. 

EXERCISE 

It is of the utmost importance to provide a run 
or yard for young chickens. They require much 
exercise, and unless provision is made for this, 
it cannot be expected that the most satisfactory 
growth and development will be made. 



214 



Farm Poultry 



The young of all animals are active and will 
take constant exercise if opportunity is given. 
Particularly is this true of the young of fowls. 
They are not only inclined to range freely on 
their own account, but under natural conditions 
the mother, wandering from place to place in 




Fig. 70. Chicken coop — Rhode Island Agrienltural Experiment Station. 

search of food, compels the young to take a 
greater amount of daily exercise than they would 
if left wholly to themselves. Perhaps the reader, 
if he is a farmer, will be surprised to recall how 
far from home he has seen the old hen with her 
brood of little chicks. 

It is essential also that they be kept in a dry 



Care of Little Chickens 215 

place, either on a floor or a dry soil. Young 
chickens should never be permitted to run on 
moist land, particularly if it is allowed to become 
filthy. Many chickens that are hardy when kept 
dry prove tender when compelled to occupy quar- 
ters that are more or less damp. There are sev- 
eral breeds of poultry that cannot endm^e damp- 
ness, though hardy to a satisfactory degree when 
provided with warm and dry quarters. 

It should be borne in mind that the attendant 
or feeder is responsible for the health and general 
condition of the chickens, quite as much as the 
food which they consume. Skilful feeders, by 
noting carefully the wants and conditions of the 
chickens as regards thrift, are able to determine 
how best to feed and to accomplish satisfactory 
results with food that would prove entirely un- 
satisfactory with a little neglect or indifference 
on the part of the feeder. 

FEEDING TROUGHS 

It is necessary to provide feeding troughs for 
little chickens in order to prevent them from 
tramping on the food; for if the food be placed 
on the floor of the brooder or poultry house, it 
soon becomes soiled and unfit for consumption. 
A simple and efficient feeding trough may be 
made l)y tacking a strip of tin about 3% inches 



216 Farm Poultry 

wide along the edge of a half- inch board so that 
the tin projects about an inch and a half on either 
side of the board. Bend the tin so as to form a 
shallow trough on each side of the board, then 
fasten the board to blocks which will hold it edge- 




Fig. 71. A feeding trough for little chickens. 

wise and raise it from one to two inches from the 
floor. (See Fig. 71.) The trough may be from one 
to three feet long. It is within easy reach of the 
chickens and so narrow that they cannot stand 
upon the edges. Food placed in such feeding 
troughs may be kept clean until wholly consumed. 

GKIT 

Grit should be placed before chickens not later 
than the second day after they commence to eat. 
Coarse sand will answer the purpose very well for 
young chickens. Finely crushed stone or pulver- 
ized cinders will suffice if coarse sand or prepared 
grit is not at hand. As nature does not provide 
grit in the digestive organs of the newly hatched 
chicken, it is necessary to furnish this grit in order 



Supply of Drinking Water 



217 



that the chick may grind its first hard food. As 
nature provides nourishment for a chicken for a 
day or two after it is hatched, grit is not absolutely 
needed until the third or fourth day, provided the 
first food is quite soft. 

DKINKING FOUNTAINS 

One of the difficult problems that the amateur 
poultryman has to solve is how best to keep pure 
drinking water continually before the little chick- 




Fig. 72. A movable coop, showing a good device. 

ens. Small chickens drink frequently, and as their 
little beaks are sometimes more or less loaded with 
soft food, which is deposited in the drinking foun- 
tain whenever the beak becomes wet, the question 
of how to keep the water pure is not an easy one 
to solve. As it is necessary to keep the drinking 



218 Farm Poultry 

fountain at a warm temperature, it soon becomes 
tainted and, unless given frequent attention, will 
emit a disagreeable odor. This condition must 
not be allowed to exist, for all food and water 
consumed by the fowls, particularly the young, 
should be free from taint. There is no greater 
stumbling block to the novice than the lack of 
cleanliness. 

Many automatic fountains will keep water before 
the chickens, but they are frequently difficult to 
cleanse if they once become tainted. Nothing 
less than frequent scalding with steam or boiling 
water will answer the purpose. Any drinking foun- 
tain that is constructed of glass, that will not 
bear such temperatures, is objectionable. Tin or 
earthenware is preferred on account of the ease 
of cleansing. A drinking fountain made on the 
same principle as the one with a revolving reser- 
voir, described in a previous chapter (page 120), 
will prove very satisfactory. An empty tomato 
can and a shallow saucer will answer every pur- 
pose. These may be readily cleansed and are 
convenient. 

BKOODERS 

Brooders require constant care to keep them 
clean and to see that no part becomes wet, which 
will frequently happen if water dishes are placed 
within the machine. Cleanliness must be insisted 



The Care of Brooders 219 

on. The temperature at which the brooder 
should be kept will depend largely upon the 
age of the chickens. It should be warm enough 
so that the chickens will not huddle together to 
keep warm, and of course, should be cool enough 
for the greatest comfort. Bowel disorders are fre- 
quently caused by exposure and improper brooder 
temperatures. The person who makes his chick- 
ens the most comfortable will probably succeed 
best with the brooder. 

The following conclusions in regard to im- 
proper feeding and brooder conditions are given 
l3y the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment 
Station:* "Post-mortem examination showed that 
the diseases may be classified under four heads. 
Disorders ascribable : 

"A. To heredity or to environment during period 
of incubation. (Recent experiments have 
demonstrated that successive alternate 
periods of heat and cold during incubation 
are responsible for a very large proportion 
of abnormalities.) Thirty- three per cent 
of the chicks examined showed more or less 
trouble under this head. 

"B. To mechanical causes, e. g., overcrowding 
in the brooders, resulting in death by 
suffocation, trampling, etc. 

* Bulletin No. Gl, p. 53, 



220 Farm Poultry 

■'0. To imperfect sanitation, lack of ventilation, 
sunlight, etc.; e. g., tuberculosis flourishes 
in dark, poorly ventilated brooders. Fif- 
teen and one -tenth per cent of the post- 
mortems showed more or less evidence of 
tuberculosis. 

"D. To improperly balanced ration, i. e., im- 
proper feeding. For the continued main- 
tenance of health there must be a definite 
proportion between the amount of carbo- 
hydrates (starch, sugar, etc.), fats and the 
nitrogen- containing proteins. A ration 
wholly vegetable is almost certain to con- 
tain a too low percentage of nitrogen, 
while a ration exclusively animal is very 
sure to be deficient in carbohydrates. As 
a result of improper food, digestive dis- 
orders soon appear, either in the liver and 
gall bladder, or in the intestines. Of the 
chicks examined, 75.7 per cent had abnor- 
mal livers; 38.6 per cent had various forms 
of intestinal disorders." 

"In conclusion, special attention is called to the 
following facts, confirmed by experiments:* 

"1. Careful external and internal examination 
(such as any one can readily make) of the dead 
chick will usually disclose the cause of death. The 
necessary remedies are usually not difficult to find. 

♦Bulletin No. 61, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 59. 



Causes of Death 221 

"2. Death from overcrowding, suffocation and 
trampling can be readily corrected. It is more 
frequent than is generally suspected. 

"3. For guarding against tuberculosis, give the 
interior of the brooders all the sun and air pos- 
sible on pleasant days. 

"4. Trouble of the liver and gall bladder are 
usually easily recognizable from the green stains. 
For correcting this, feed more animal food. The 
use of the proper proportion of animal food will 
pay a handsome profit through decreased mortality 
and increased weight of the chicks. In feeding- 
bear in mind that chicks in a state of nature 
spend practically all their waking hours in search 
of food, and that they do not fill their crops in 
ten minutes every two hours. Feeding should be, 
as far as the time of the attendant renders profit- 
able, a continuous process, but by no means a 
continuous gorge. 

"5. Diarrhoea, etc., frequently result from feed- 
ing a too large proportion of animal food, and are 
often brought on by cold, exposure, etc. 

"6. If the yolk is present in considerable quan- 
tity in chicks a week old, or if more than 1 or 
2 per cent of deformed chicks appears, look to 
the better regulation of the incubators or to the 
health of the breeding pens." 



CHAPTER XII 

CAPONS AND BROILERS 

There is a question in the minds of many 
persons whether caponizing is really as profitable 
as it is often represented to be. The profits 
of capon rearing that are frequently given in 
captivating accounts are often very misleading. 
While it is true that these most favorable reports 
are well within the range of possibilities, yet 
many of them far exceed the probable returns of 
earnest and well-directed efforts of beginners. 
One of the first questions which should be de- 
cided as regards capon rearing, is the profit which 
this enterprise will probably yield; — in other 
words, will caponizing pay! Without doubt this 
question should be answered both affirmatively 
and negatively. When capon rearing is compared 
with some of the most productive lines of poultry 
work conducted at this time by the most skilful 
operators, it probably will not make a very favor- 
able showing. On the other hand, the profits 
from fine capons which have been prepared by 
the expert will undoubtedly compare favorably 
with results obtained in other directions. If the 

(222) 



Capons and Broilers 223 

prices which capons bring are to be compared 
with those of the choicest broilers, one would be 
led to believe that broiler raising would be the 
more profitable. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that it is 
quite possible to make good capons of fowls that 
at no time in their existence would have sold for 
the highest prices as broilers. Broiler raising, like 
the rearing of early or '' hothouse" lambs, requires 
great skill. Those who do not understand how 
to secure these choice products, may make good 
capons from fowls that would not answer the re- 
quirements of the higher priced broilers. 

In rearing broilers, it is impossible to bring all 
the birds to the desired condition — that is, all will 
not be as good as the best. The poorer birds may 
be retained on the farm and prepared for the 
capon market. When the profits which choice 
capons bring are compared with the profits of 
rearing mature fowls that are sold for meat, a 
most excellent showing will be made. The ques- 
tion, then, whether capons will pay, depends 
largely on the point of view. Sometimes capons 
undoubtedly can be made to pay well, and the 
rearing of them should be encouraged under cer- 
tain conditions. 

To those who have had no experience in the 
rearing of capons, and to whom, perhaps, the 
word is almost a new one, it may be stated that 



224 Farm Poultry 

they are castrated males. The operation is per- 
formed in order that the fowls may grow larger, 
become more gentle, and fatten more readily than 
they would otherwise. The operation, if success- 
fully performed, changes the nature of the indi- 
vidual to a marked degree. The change brought 
about by this operation on the fowls is quite as 
great as that caused by a similar operation upon 
other classes of farm stock, if not even greater 
than that. The birds lose their activity, which 
is a potent factor in easy fattening. They grow 
considerably larger than they otherwise would 
and appear much more gentle and consequently 
thrive well in close confinement. 

As the bodies of capons are large, their heads 
appear somewhat out of proportion, — that is, the 
comb and wattles do not develop, which makes the 
head appear small. The flesh of capons is espe- 
cially prized. The muscles are tender, the birds 
fatten readily, and their large size makes them 
especially desirable for certain methods of cook- 
ing. The largest capons sell for the highest price. 
In order to reach the highest profit, capons should 
be large and fat and not more than ten or eleven 
months of age. If they are kept until a later 
age, the meat becomes somewhat coarse and is 
not so desirable. While early chickens are most 
highly prized for broilers, the later ones may be 
turned to a good account for the capon market. 



Caponizing 



225 



The question is sometimes asked, with all se- 
riousness, whether the operation is not sufficiently 
painful to condemn the practice. Without doubt 
considerable pain is involved, but no more than in 
a similar operation which is performed so gener- 




Fig. 



Wigmore's caponizing set. 



ally on other classes of farm stock, and the pain 
is probably less than in those cases. 

That capons are regularly quoted in markets 
of many cities shows that there is sufficient de- 
mand for them to warrant poultry men in giving 
considerable attention to their production, particu- 



226 Farm Poultry 

larly if they are so situated that fowls which 
would otherwise bring low prices can be turned 
to this use to a good advantage. The regular 
quotations also indicate that a considerable num- 
ber of poultrymen find capon rearing a fairly prof- 
itable branch of the poultry business. Were 
this not true, poultrymen would cease to rear 
them and their presence in the markets of so 
many cities would be unknown. 

It is not difficult to learn how to perform suc- 
cessfully the operation of caponizing fowls of the 
proper age, but some persons are naturally 
more deft in finger manipulation than others and 
are able to perform delicate operations neatly and 
rapidly. In districts in which large numbers of 
capons are reared, professionals are usually en- 
gaged by capon rearers to perform operations on 
large numbers of fowls at one time. They go 
about the country doing the work more satisfac- 
torily and more rapidly than the owners could do 
it for themselves, and, as they have become so 
expert, they are enabled to perform the operation 
for a very small sum and still make good wages. 
From two to four cents per head usually pays 
for a skilful operator. Any one who is at all 
deft may perform the work by merely following 
the directions furnished by the manufacturers of 
caponizing instruments. Comparatively few farm- 
ers, however, will become expert if they operate 



Capons and Caponizing 227 

only upon their own fowls. "While the novice 
might, and probably would, spend a half hour 
upon the first bird, and then possibly produce a 
slip, experts will do scores each hour during the 
whole day. One very sure and rapid worker 
caponized one bird per minute for three hours 
in succession, his day's work being 450, of which 
not one per cent died."* 

All breeds of fowls are not equally well suited 
to the production of capons. The Black Lang- 
shans are generally especially recommended for 
this purpose. On the other hand, Indian Games 
should be avoided. Plymouth Rocks answer the 
purpose very well. Langshan and Plymouth 
Rock crosses are especially prized. They make 
large, fine -looking birds, fatten readily and are 
easily operated upon. Brahmas, of course, grow 
to the largest size, and may prove to be most 
profitable birds for this purpose. They are not, 
however, so good for the beginner, on account 
of the somewhat greater difiiculty in performing 
the operation. Commission men do not state that 
there is much, if any, difference in the value of 
capons from the different breeds of fowls; that 
is, it is not recognized that some breeds produce 
capons decidedly superior to those of other breeds. 
Large -sized birds that are fat bring the highest 
prices. 

♦"Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 171. 



228 Farm Poultry 

It is recommended that the fowls should be 
operated upon when they have attained the weight 
of about two pounds. Some poultry men recom- 
mend that the operation be performed a little 
earlier in life, while others are very successful 
in operating upon birds that are somewhat older. 
Without doubt the best time will depend some- 
what upon the condition of the bird. If the 
fowls are growthy and thin, a somewhat lighter 
weight will suffice than if the fowls are very 
plump. In a general way, authorities on capon- 
izing recommend that the operation be performed 
when the fowls are from 1% to 2% pounds in 
weight. 

''■ Chickens to be operated upon should be fasted 
from twelve to twenty -four hours, and in some 
cases even forty- eight hours is recommended. 
It is suggested not only to withhold food, but, 
during a considerable period of the fasting, to 
withhold water as well. Fowls are fasted in 
order to empt}^ the digestive organs and to de- 
plete somewhat the quantity of blood, and 
thereby reduce the danger of rupturing the 
blood-vessels while performing the operation. 
One great danger is in the liability of rupturing 
the arteries which are situated very near the 
organs that are to be removed. When it is 
borne in mind that the abdominal cavity is 
opened and that the intestines are pushed aside 



Gaponizing 



229 



in order to perform the operation successfully, 
it will readily be seen how essential it is to have 
the bowels as nearly empty as possible, and, at 
the same time, to deplete the quantity of blood 
in the blood-vessels so far as the good health of 
the fowl will permit. One objection that is fre- 
quently made to caponizing is, that good light 
is required, particularly if the operator is not the 
most skilled. Clear days when the sun shines 
brightly are preferred. 
It frequently happens 
that fowls may be 
fasted for the opera- 
tion and cloudy 
weather prevail. This 
should be sufficient 
cause to prevent the 
novice from proceed- 
ing further until clear weather comes. In such 
an event, it will be necessary to keep the fowls 
on very light rations of soft food until the prom- 
ise of clear weather is near at hand. Experienced 
operators are not hindered so much by improper 
light as are the inexperienced, yet all deem the 
brightest light desirable. 

The head-reflector used by physicians in per- 
forming delicate operations upon the throat, is 
used by some operators, and is found to work 
successfully with artificial light. Expert oper- 




Fiy. 74. Caponizing table, showing cords 
and weiglits used to hold the fowls. 



230 Farm Poultry 

ators are enabled to work with the reflector with 
almost as much ease and satisfaction as in bright 
sunlight. This reflector consists of a mirror fas- 
tened to the head by a band in such a manner 
that the mirror can be turned to any desired 
angle to throw the light into the cavity, and 
to show the location of the organs to be re- 
moved, as well as the place of the near-by veins 
and arteries. 

" When to make capons and the time to sell.— 
Judging from these results and a study of the 
markets the best chance to profit by the produc- 
tion of capons would be in caponizing late chicks 
that ordinarily would be fit for market as broilers 
or roasters when the prices are the lowest, and 
too old to sell as tender chickens in January and 
February. Cockerels that were hatched in June, 
July or August, especially if of the lars^e early- 
maturing kind like Plymouth Rocks and Wyan- 
dottes crossed on Brahmas or Langshans, castrated 
in September, October and November, and mar- 
keted in March, April, May and June, when they 
would have reached their best, would be the most 
profitable and bring the highest price. Such 
birds are often sold alive by the pound very low 
in the city markets or by those who have no room 
to winter them. Farmers who have cheap food, 
who are far from shipping points, and therefore 
kill and ship all at one time in cold weather, 



Marketing Capons 231 

might profitably make capons of all roosters. 
Those who keep birds until maturity for their 
own table should do the same. There will be 
little gained by caponizing birds in May or June 
if they are to be marketed by Christmas, as the 
birds have not sufficient time to fill out."* 

Preparing capons for market.— ''Caipons, like 
other fowls, should be fasted twenty-four hours 
before killing, that the crop may be empty and 
therefore need not be removed. The head, the 
distinguishing mark of a capon, has a particu- 
larly long and pointed appearance and should 
always be left on. They should be bled by cut- 
ting inside the mouth or throat. The neck and 
saddle feathers are unusually large and fine ; these 
and the small size of the tail distinguish a capon 
from any other fowl; therefore they are left on, 
as well as the feathers on the leg from the hock 
joint half way up the thigh and those on the 
outer joints of the wings. The breast, back, the 
wings next to the body and the upper part of 
the thighs are picked clean. They should be 
dry-picked without tearing the skin, and the head, 
mouth, shanks and feet washed clean. Care 
should be taken to remove all clotted blood from 
the mouth. Capons for the New York markets 
should be sent undrawn. Some Boston dealers 
receive them undrawn. They should be packed 

♦Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



232 Farm Poultry 

in boxes or flour barrels washed clean and lined 
with white wrapping paper. Neatness and at- 
tractive appearance are everything where quick 
sales and best prices are to be secured." * 

BKOILEES 

Broilers are young, plump and fat chickens 
which have been forced to make the greatest pos- 
sible weight during the few weeks of their exist- 
ence. Broiler rearing may be regarded as one of 
the specialties of the poultry business and one that 
does not appeal particularly to the farmer who 
keeps his fowls under what may be called good 
average conditions. If a farmer who keeps from 
fifty to oue hundred and fifty hens should produce 
a few good broilers, the extra expense and trouble 
of preparing them for market and of marketing 
them would make serious inroads on the profits. 

Great skill is required to bring this work to its 
highest perfection; consequently those who are 
prepared to raise a considerable number of fowls 
for this purpose are more likely to become expert 
^than are those whose chief interests lie along other 
^ines of work. On this account the production 
of broilers for the markets of the large cities is 
chiefly in the hands of comparatively few, who 
may be called specialists. These men make 

* Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Broilers 233 

broiler rearing a business, and learn how to per- 
form the various operations in the best manner 
and with the greatest exactness. 

If one is contemplating the production of broil- 
ers on a somewhat extensive scale, he should not 
depend upon written directions for his guidance, 
but should make a thorough inspection of the 
markets, in order to learn what kind of a product 
the market demands. He should also visit one or 
more broiler farms, where these birds are success- 
fully reared in large numbers. The experience of 
practical men is the safest guide. 

As broilers are often placed upon the market 
when they weigh less than two pounds per pair, 
the skill in feeding little chickens and the care of 
the brooder become of the utmost importance. 
Light-weight winter broilers may be regarded as 
strictly brooder chickens. The light-weight broil- 
ers, when in demand, sell for the highest prices. 
Skill is of more relative importance in the produc- 
tion of young high-priced meat than in the pro- 
duction of mature fowls or those which more nearly 
approach maturity. 

While the cost of food is of less relative im- 
portance in the production of young fowls for the 
market than in the production of older ones, yet it 
should be remembered that the cost of food per 
pound of gain in live weight increases as the 
period from birth or hatching is increased. This 



234 Farm Poultry 

cost continues to increase until a period is reached 
when the food consumed produces no gain, that 
is, until the fowls cease to increase in size and 
weight. If the production of flesh is considered 
from a standpoint of food alone, the young fowls 
are the most profitable. When the cost of hatch- 
ing and the value of the eggs are taken into 
account, the youngest product may not be the 
most profitable to the producer. It is for each 
breeder to determine for himself at what age he 
can sell with the greatest profit. Young fowls will 
undoubtedly be selected, but, as a few weeks' 
growth often changes considerably the value per 
pound, fine discriminations must be made if one is 
to become expert. 

The question is frequently asked, "Will it pay 
to raise broilers?" It will undoubtedly pay the 
right kind of people to enter into the business on 
a somewhat large scale; yet no one, no matter 
how enthusiastic he maybe, should attempt broiler 
rearing on a large scale without experience and 
considerable capital. The chief essential to suc- 
cess is a good knowledge of the business. If this- 
cannot be learned from the experience of others, 
it should be learned from personal experience, 
beginning in a small way at first and advancing 
as judgment seems to warrant. 

Many poultry raisers about Hammonton, New 
Jersey, find it profitable to produce broilers for 



Broilers 235 

the New York and Philadelphia markets during 
a portion of the year. Throughout the winter 
and spring this work pays them best. In the 
summer other lines of work largely occupy their 
attention. Broilers are reared more for home 
consumption on the farms in some parts of the 
country than others. The South depends more 
on these young fowls than the North. 

Dry, sandy or gravelly soils are specially prized 
for broiler rearing. Cleanliness and freedom from 
moisture are requisites to success. These con- 
ditions are more easily maintained on light, por- 
ous soils than on heavy ones. Keep the chickens 
dry and clean and give them plenty of wholesome, 
easily digested food. Corn meal, wheat bran, 
ground oats with the hulls removed, and hard- 
boiled eggs may make the bulk of the ration. 
These should be fed after thoroughly soaking or 
scalding. Some meat food and some green food 
should not be neglected. Baked foods are rec- 
ommended and are undoubtedly safe. For further 
discussion of foods, see chapter on feeding little 
chickens (Chapter XI ) . Those who make a 
study of the foods used by successful poultry- 
raisers soon learn that there is no best food, but 
many foods are excellent if fed with judgment. 

Various breeds of fowls are used for broilers, 
one of the favorites being the Wyandotte. Many 
prefer to use crosses, on account of the vigor and 



236 Farm Poultry 

hardiness of the chicks. Heavy breeds are usually- 
crossed on the smaller, quick -maturing ones. 
These crosses have suitable size and they mature 
early. 

Broiler - rearing and egg production go well 
together. Experienced broiler raisers who have 
a good knowledge of the business are able to 
produce eggs that will give better and more even 
lots of chickens than those that are purchased 
from farmers who, perhaps, keep fowls of many 
different breeds. The ultimate success will de- 
pend largely on the fertility of the eggs and on 
the kind of fowls that produced them. 



CHAPTER XIII 

DUCKS AND GEESE 

The American farmer too often thinks of "poul- 
try" as comprising only "hens and chickens." The 
term really covers all kinds of domesticated birds 
including those grown for pets or for mere fancy. 
With the more diversified agriculture of the 
future, other species than hens must come into 
greater prominence. 

DUCKS — GENERAL DISCUSSION 

While ducks have been reared on farms for a 
great many years, yet a large proportion of the 
business of duck -rearing is now in the hands 
of specialists who conduct it on an extensive 
scale. A considerable proportion of the duck 
products of farms, where only small flocks are 
maintained, is consumed at home and does not 
affect the general market. The rearing of the 
so-called "green ducks" for market has provided 
a profitable occupation for many extensive duck 
raisers. Comparatively few farmers enter into the 
business of duck -raising extensively. Ducks are 

(237) 



238 Farm Poultry 

usually kept in moderate -sized flocks, that roam 
at will over a considerable portion of the prem- 
ises. When reared under these conditions, the 
ducks frequently prove beneficial in the destruc- 
tion of various insect pests. They will travel 
long distances, and in their rambles are con- 
tinually on the lookout for food; both vegetable 
and animal life are greedily consumed. Ducks 
may become, under certain conditions, quite as 
destructive to farm crops as chickens, although 
if streams or wet fields are included within their 
range a considerable portion of their time is 
given to hunting food in these places. 

Those who enter into duck -raising extensively 
rear the fowls almost exclusively for meat. The 
eggs produced by extensive duck raisers are not 
put on the market as food to any great extent, in 
competition with eggs that are produced cheaper 
by the noted ^gg breeds of hens. Ducks can 
seldom successfully compete with hens for egg 
production. 

Many farmers prefer, for various reasons, to 
keep ducks rather than hens. It is well known 
that ducks are comparatively free from disease 
and are not nearly so likely to be troubled with 
vermin as hens. This is of considerable im- 
portance on many farms where the fowls are not 
given much care and attention. 

Ducks are much^ more easily confined than 



Buck Bearing 239 

hens. A fence two or three feet high should 
suffice for them under all ordinary conditions, 
particularly for those breeds which are the most 
profitable for farm use. It is true that some of 
the less profitable breeds, so far as meat pro- 
duction is concerned, are able to use their wings 
to good advantage and are quite as troublesome 
to keep within inclosures as Mediterranean fowls. 
Another reason why farmers frequently prefer 
ducks to hens, is that the young grow much 
more rapidly. Those who make a practice of 
fattening young ducks for the market, expect to 
secure birds that will weigh four and one half 
or five pounds at nine or ten weeks of age, while 
good chickens would weigh only about half as 
much. 

Ducks are adapted to the various parts of the 
country where chickens thrive well. They may 
be reared under a great variety of conditions as 
regards climate and exposure. Because ducks, 
in a state of nature, select shallow water or 
marshy land as their feeding ground and largely 
prefer bodies of water to dry land, it is thought 
by many that streams or ponda are necessary 
for the successful rearing of domesticated kinds. 
However, many of the most successful duck 
raisers, who produce large numbers of young 
birds for the market, do not depend on streams 
or ponds of water for their fowls. It is true 



240 Farm Poultry 

that the plumage of both young and old birds 
will be kept in a somewhat cleaner condition if 
the ducks have access to ponds or streams, but 
this is a matter of minor importance in the rear- 
ing of ducks for the market. Some hold that 



A 




Fig. 75. White Pekin drake, young (one-eighth size). 

if the breeding ducks have access to water, a 
larger proportion of fertile eggs is secured. 
Other breeders, however, are able to conduct 
their business satisfactorily without such water, 
and consequently it may be said that the value 
of ponds or running water for breeding ducks 
may be somewhat questionable. 



Kinds of Bucks 241 

DUCKS — BKEEDS 

Nine breeds of ducks are described in the 
American Standard of Perfection; viz., the Pekin, 
Aylesbury, Rouen, Cayuga, Muscovy, East In- 
dian, Call, Crested, and Indian Runner. Of these, 
the first four may be mentioned as the profitable 




Fig. 76. White Pekin duck, young (one-ninth size). 

breeds for farm use. While the Muscovy ducks 
are the largest, yet they are not the most profit- 
able for farmers. The East Indian and Call 
ducks are too small to be most profitable. They 
have not been bred for eggs or meat and are 
considered as fancy fowls. They occupy a similai- 
position among ducks to that which bantams 
occupy among chickens. 

Fekin. — The White Pekins undoubtedly occupy 



242 Farm Poultry 

a foremost position as to popularity. Without 
doubt a larger number of White Pekins are reared 
for market than of any other breed. They are 
pure white, large, and are excellent layers. They 
are considered hardy and are easily reared. They 
mature early and are especially prized for the 
production of young birds for market. When 
walking they assume a more upright position than 
do the ducks of most other breeds. The Pekins 
are largely reared by extensive duck raisers who 
make a specialty of the so-called "green ducks"; 
that is, young birds that will weigh about five 
pounds apiece when not more than ten weeks 
old. The standard weight for Pekins is eight 
pounds for the drake and seven for the duck. 

Ayleshuri/.—The Aylesbury s probably rank 
next to the Pekins in popularity. In general 
appearance they closely resemble the Pekins, but 
may be distinguished by their carriage. The 
Aylesburys are a pound heavier than the Pekins. 
They have the power of adapting themselves 
readily to the various conditions under which 
ducks are reared. They are considered even 
more hardy and prolific than the Pekins. Some 
practical duck raisers sometimes introduce an 
Aylesbury cross on their Pekin stock to increase 
vigor and prolificacy. For market purposes the 
white breeds (Pekin and Aylesbury) are pre- 
ferred to the colored ones, because white young 



Kinds of DucJcs 243 

birds present a better appearance when dressed 
than do those of colored breeds. 

Bouen, — The Eouens are especially prized as 
table fowls. As producers of fine-grained, deli- 
cate flesh, these fowls are not surpassed by any of 
the so-called useful farm breeds. The Eouens 
resemble the wild Mallards in color, the resem- 




Fig. 77. Rouen drake (one-eighth size). 

blance between the drakes being most marked. 
The Rouens are hardy, prolific, and of gentle dis- 
position. Young birds may be kept in rather 
large flocks without the danger of stampeding 
that is so troublesome with the Pekins. While 
the standard weight for the Rouens is a pound 
heavier than that for Pekins, yet it is thought 
that they do not grow as rapidly as the latter. 
Extensive duck raisers prefer the Pekins or 



244 Farm Poultry 

Aylesburys on account of their quick growth. 
However, the Rouens are most excellent farm 
fowls and are highly prized on account of their 
hardiness, prolificacy, and gentle disposition. 
They are about the size of the Aylesburys. 

Black Cayuga.— The Black Cayugas are rec- 
ognized as a distinctively American breed. It is 




Fig. 78. Rouen duck (one-eighth size). 

asserted by some that the Cayugas grow as rapidly 
and mature as early as the Pekins, but those 
who are extensively engaged in rearing ducks 
invariably choose one of the white breeds. The 
Cayugas are profitable farm ducks. They thrive 
well in rather close confinement, are hardy, gentle, 
and do not care to wander so far from home 
as some other breeds. The standard weight for 
these is the same as for the Pekins. 



Breeds and Care 245 

Muscovy ducks. — These are the largest of any 
of the breeds mentioned, but for various rea- 
sons are not such profitable farm fowls as others. 
When compared with the Pekins or Rouens, 
the Muscovies are not as good layers. They 
are not so easily confined. Muscovy ducks are 
often troublesome in the poultry yard on account 
of their disposition to attack other fowls, both 
young and old. 

Call ducks, — Call ducks are bred chiefly for 
exhibition purposes. The gray Call ducks are 
sometimes bred for decoys and are used by sports- 
men to lure wild ducks within shooting distances. 
They are not recommended as profitable farm 
fowls. 

DUCKS — FOOD AND CAKE 

The natural food of the duck differs in some 
respects from that of the hen. While ducks, 
like hens, eat a great variety of food, yet because 
the duck is not possessed of a distinct crop the 
food is passed more directly to the digestive or- 
gans and does not undergo so complete a soften- 
ing process as that consumed by the hen. It is, 
therefore, of the utmost importance that the food 
be consumed in a soft condition. In nature the 
duck gathers a large proportion of its food from 
streams, ponds, or marshy places. This food 
consists of the young growing shoots and roots 



246 



Farm Poultry 



of water plants, snails and the larvae of va- 
rious water insects, together with small fish 
and other aquatic life. Those who have made a 
success of rearing ducks on an extended scale 
have learned a valuable lesson from nature and 
give to their young, growing ducks very little or 




•i«-:..*«H 



Fig. 79. View on Wm. H. Truslow's duck farm, East Stroudsburg, Pa., 
showing arrangement of yards and manner of supplying water. 

no hard food. While a considerable portion of 
the ration will consist of grain, it is ground and 
moistened with water or milk and fed in a soft 
condition. 

It is important in duck-rearing to secure the 
greatest degree of cleanliness, although this is 
somewhat more difficult than with hens. Where 



Yards and Pens 



247 



ducks are kept in confinement in comparatively 
small pens or yards, it will sometimes be found 
impossible to prevent the runs from becoming 
foul, though occasional cultivation will aid ma- 
terially in keeping the yards clean and in pro- 



|HP^>^[^^^^^- 


^^H^M^rm. 


/ 


W ■'' ' 




If 


■i nh. jiu, 

■■■II 


Hf 


\ 




r~Jr ^B j^jJ^V3HlSB^9f' 


^ 


.^,v..*«»«'*'^^ 


'"^^ - ■ mf 


I. 



Fig. 80. Another view on Mr. Truslow's duck farm, showing the tracl 
on which a car of feed is pushed from pen to pen at feeding time. 

viding a sanitary home for the occupants. Poul- 
trymen use various disinfectants and absorbents 
in the yards in order to keep them as clean as 
possible. Yards that are not in use all the 
year should be planted to some crop if an oppor- 
tunity is afforded. Those poultrymen who make 



248 Farm Poultry 

a specialty of producing young ducks for the 
market make a practice of sowing the yards and 
runs to some quick -growing crop as soon as the 
yards are vacant. Rye is often used for this 
purpose. During the rearing season, gypsum, 
sawdust, sifted coal ashes, and other absorbents 
are freely used in those parts of the yards that 
are most frequented by the ducks. 

Young ducks should be fed from a shallow 
trough, which should be kept as clean as possible. 
See Fig. 81. Pure water and clean yards are 
prominent essentials in successful duck- rearing. 

It is true that ducks 
will make small ponds 
and streams muddy 
and more or less filthy 

Fig. 81. A shallow feeding trough. 

when they have access 
to them, yet those that are confined in yards 
without a running stream should be supplied with 
pure drinking water. 

If the young ducks do not have opportunity 
to obtain for themselves green and animal food, 
it should be supplied to them. Specialists fre- 
quently feed young, rapidly-growing ducks a 
ration that consists of 10 or 20 per cent animal 
meal. Rations which contain considerable ani- 
mal meal have proved superior to a purely vege- 
table diet. "Rations containing animal food 
proved very much superior for ducklings to ra- 




Foods and Feeding 



249 



tions of vegetable origin which had, according 
to the ordinary methods of estimation, practi- 
cally the same nutritive value. A ration of vege- 
table food supplemented by bone ash proved much 
inferior to another ration of 
similar * composition,' in which 
three -eighths of the protein came 
from animal food."* 




Fig. 82. A V-shaped water trough 



A shallow water trough. 



If the ducklings are confined in comparatively 
small yards, it is best to provide some shade 
for them, particularly during the hottest months. 
Green food fed to ducks confined in yards should 
be cut fine in a feed- cutter. Almost any green 
succulent food will be readily eaten. Rye, clover, 
alfalfa, Canada field peas, and corn make excel- 
lent food if finely cut. Ducks will readily eat 
the plant, stalk and all, in this condition, while 

* Summary of Bulletin No. 171, New York Experiment Station. 



250 Farm Poultry 

chickens will select the leaves and other tender 
parts and reject the more woody portions of the 
stalks. The green material may be fed alone 
or mixed with the moistened ground food. The 
latter may consist of wheat bran, corn meal and 
ground oats, the hulls of the oats having been 
removed. Various kinds of ground grains may 
be employed, although those mentioned are used 
most by experienced men. 

Ducklings of some breeds appear to be quite 
fearless in some respects, yet under other condi- 
tions they are easily frightened, and, if a consid- 
erable number are kept in one yard or pen, the 
injury done by "stampeding" is sometimes con- 
siderable. Pekin ducklings are particularly liable 
to injury from this cause. Some extensive duck 
raisers make a practice of lighting artificially 
that part of the yard occupied by the fowls dur- 
ing the night as a partial safeguard against 
this trouble. 



GEESE — GENEEAL DISCUSSION 

The rearing of geese is not so extensive a 
business as that of raising ducks. The condi- 
tions requisite for the successful raising of geese 
are very different from those for ducks. The 
rearing of geese is not in the hands of a com- 
paratively few extensive raisers. Q-eese are still 



Bearing Geese 251 

raised on many farms in comparatively small 
flocks. The fact that geese require very much 
more room than ducks has probably been an 
important factor in keeping the business of rear- 
ing them in the hands of farmers who go into 
the enterprise in a moderate way. While ducks 
are frequently reared successfully without water, 
except as it may be necessary for drinking, yet 
geese thrive best where ponds or streams are pro- 
vided. While ducks may thrive under practically 
the same conditions as geese, yet the conditions 
under w^hich geese do best are not necessary for 
successful duck - raising. Fields which are not 
suitable for cultivation on account of springs or 
streams make good pastures for geese. A com- 
paratively low springy or marshy land may be 
used to good advantage if some part of the run 
is comparatively high and dry. Geese do not 
thrive so well in large flocks as ducks do. There 
seems to be a somewhat general law which may 
be applied to all farm stock as regards the size of 
flocks or herds. The smaller animals, as a rule, 
thrive much better in large flocks than do the 
larger breeds or varieties. It is true that large 
herds of cattle are maintained on some of the 
great cattle ranches in the prairie countries, but 
an almost unlimited range is given them. 

Geese do not require a great deal of attention. 
After the young are a week or so old, they are 



252 Farm Poultry 

able to care for themselves largely, if a good 
range is given. The food of geese is largely 
grass, although insects and other low forms of 
animal life are eaten readily and are essential. 

GEESE— BKEEDS 

The most common breeds of the pure -bred 
geese are the Toulouse, African, Embden, Chinese, 
Canada or Wild, and Egyptian. Many geese 
throughout the country are of no particular 
breed. It is probable that these geese have 
descended from those imported by settlers at 
an early date in the history of the country. In 
some instances improved breeds have been 
crossed on these common or mongrel geese, but 
many flocks are still maintained that are of no 
particular breed, neither color nor conformation 
indicating that they contain any considerable 
proportion of blood of improved kinds. 

Toulouse. — The Toulouse geese are large, 
massive, and probably attain a greater weight 
than those of any other breed. I. K. Felch 
states* that geese of sixty pounds weight per 
pair have been exhibited in American exhi- 
bitions. 

"Toulouse geese usually lay more eggs in a 
season than Embden or African geese, but not as 

*" Poultry Culture," p. 404. 



Breeds of Geese 



253 



many as the best China geese. They are nearer 
non- sitting than any other variety, but some in- 
dividuals make good mothers. The gosHngs are 
greenish yellow in color, generally hardy and vig- 
orous. They are quiet and peaceable, and more 
easily confined by stone fences than other breeds, 




Fig. 84. A pair of gray Touloiise geese.— Fro:ii United States Department 
of Agi-ieulture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.— Howard. . 

and would be more likely to be contented in close 
quarters. Toulouse geese are gray in color, with 
a square, massive body, carried fairly horizontal, 
the abdominal pouch, or loose folds of skin be- 
tween and behind the legs, almost or quite 
touching the ground."* 

It is often difficult to distinguish the sexes, 

* Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



254 



Farm Poultry 



as the gander and goose have exactly the same 
color and the same feathering. The standard 
weight given by the American Standard of Per- 
fection is twenty pounds for the adult male and 
eighteen pounds for the adult female. 

EmMen. — The Embdens very much resemble 
the Toulouse in general form; they are, however, 




Fig. 85. Gray wild goose.— From United States Department of Agriculture, 
.Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.— Howard. 

pure white throughout, which enables one readily 
to distinguish one breed from the other. The 
Embdens do not have the great abdominal pouch 
of the Toulouse, although it is sometimes dis- 
tinctly developed. "These geese are inclined to 
lay a little earlier than the Toulouse, and their 
eggs average a trifle heavier, but they do not 
lay quite as many eggs, and are much more per- 



Breeds of Oeese 



255 



sistent sitters. They make excellent mothers . The 
goslings when hatched are of a rich yellow color, 
which changes to white as the quill feathers grow. 
They are generally hardy and gi'ow rapidly." * 

African. — "Gray African geese are by many 
raisers considered the most profitable of all 
geese to keep. They grow the heaviest in the 




Fig. 86. A pair of gray African geese.— From United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.— Howard. 

shortest space of time, and are ready for market 
in ten weeks, weighing at that age between eight 
and ten pounds. They are very much like the 
Pekin duck in this respect, and as compared 
with other geese give the most satisfactory re- 
turns for the least labor and time spent in 
growing them." t 

* Report, 1897, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
t Farmers' Bulletin No. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



256 Farm Poultry 

The African geese are called good layers, and 
are especially prized as table fowls. The flesh 
is good flavored and not so coarse fibered as the 
Toulouse. The young are hardy and grow rap- 
idly. The voice and notes of the African goose 
resemble those of the China goose quite as much 
as those of the Toulouse or Embden. 




Fig. 87. Wild and African cross.— From United States Department of 
Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64.— Howard. 

Chinese. — Individuals of this breed are several 
pounds smaller than those of the breeds previ- 
ously described. They are highly prized for 
the quality of their flesh and are recognized as 
excellent layers. Their lack of size, however, 
has made them unpopular except for exhibition 
purposes. 



Food — Natural and Artificial 257 

GEESE — FOOD AND CAKE 

The first food for young goslings in nature is 
grass, and breeders prefer to provide this for the 
young of the domesticated geese. Grass at pas- 
ture is recommended. Moistened corn meal is 
also recommended. Grit in the form of sand 
or fine gravel should be provided. Cooked vege- 
tables make an excellent food and may be fed 
in the form of a mash. Bran, middlings, and 
corn meal, mixed with cooked vegetables, are 
highly recommended. As with ducks and chick- 
ens, it has been found best to give some animal 
food. Animal meal mixed with the moistened 
corn meal is recommended for young geese by 
many breeders. The food of breeding geese 
should consist chiefly of natural food gathered 
from the pasture. Insects, snails, and other 
animal life are then consumed. If animal food 
is not abundant, it may be supplied artificially 
to good advantage in the form of animal meal. 
It is essential to permit breeding geese to roam 
at will over areas of considerable size. For 
fattening geese, it is a general practice to con- 
fine them somewhat closely in order to prevent 
them from taking too much exercise. Europeans, 
who have become so noted for fattening geese, 
take great pains to keep them quiet. Every 
precaution should be taken to avoid any dis- 



258 Farm Poultry 

turbance of the flock. Corn meal may form 
the larger portion of the daily ration for fatten- 
ing geese. Meat scrap may enter into the ration 
up to one -fifth of the total amount, for immature 
fowls. 

Pate de foie gr as. —In districts where the pro- 
duction of "pate de foie gras" has developed 
into an industry, particularly about Strasburg, 
Germany, the geese are confined in individual 
stalls so closely that they are compelled to re- 
main in a sitting or standing posture. The stalls 
are narrow, so that the birds are not even per- 
mitted to turn around. They are removed from 
this stall twice each day and fed, by the cram- 
ming process, whole Indian corn that has been 
thoroughly soaked. The corn is forced into the 
mouth by hand and pushed into the throat by 
the finger and is worked down the neck by rub- 
bing externally. The geese are given plenty of 
pure water and grit in the form of fine gravel. 
The close confinement and abundance of corn 
cause the livers to grow abnormally large, some- 
times weighing as much as three pounds each. 

It is said that expert feeders will produce 
large livers in over 80 per cent of the geese fed. 
The livers when prepared are known commer- 
cially as "pate de foie gras," and are esteemed 
a great delicacy. The feeders who sell livers to 
those who prepare them for the trade sometimes 



Buildings ^ 259 

receive as much as $1.50 per pound. In some 
districts, it is reported that great stress is laid 
on the grit which is furnished these fattening 
geese. Small pieces of antimony ore are said to 
be highly prized for this purpose. In some places 
the geese are suspended in nets, which prevent 
them from taking exercise. 

Houses. — Geese require inexpensive and small 
houses. Comparatively rude and simple struc- 
tures answer every purpose. Simple shelter from 
the storm is all that is necessary during the 
larger part of the year. While they require 
larger houses than ducks, and do not stand 
crowding to so great an extent, yet the buildings 
need not be expensive. Geese will require about 
the same space in the building per pound of 
live weight as ducks, but beiug much larger, 
require larger buildings for the same number of 
fowls. 

Laying qualities. — Geese are long-lived. It is 
stated on good authority that they frequently 
live from thirty to fifty years, and individuals 
have lived to be more than a hundred years 
old. The females retain their breeding qualities 
through life, yet it is recommended to keep only 
young ganders. Those from three to five j^ears 
of age are preferred. Geese are good sitters and 
make good mothers. In this respect they still 
retain well their natural instincts. Under ordi- 



260 Farm Poultry 

nary conditions, a goose will lay from twelve to 
twenty eggs before incubation. If the eggs be 
removed from the nest, two or three sittings of 
eggs may be produced by one female before in- 
cubation will be persisted in. Usually it is rec- 
ommended not to attempt to secure more than 
three sittings from one female before she is per- 
mitted to incubate. In practice, the first eggs 
are usually set under hens, the goose hatching 
the eggs that are laid last. 

Geese frequently begin laying early in the 
spring, sometimes as early as February. Many 
instances have been noted where the laying com- 
menced in the late fall or early winter, but would 
not continue through the winter. In such in- 
stances the laying would begin again in the 
spring. 

The period of incubation is stated by various 
authors to be from twenty -eight to thirty -one 
days, which without doubt will represent the limits 
under ordinary conditions. When eggs are placed 
under hens they are not covered quite so well as 
when placed under the mother goose, and incuba- 
tion therefore may be delayed a little. 



CHAPTER XIV 

TURKEYS, GUINEAS, PEAFOWLS, PIGEONS 

Of the species of poultry aside from the hen, 
ducks and geese, none has risen to great popu- 
larity in North America except the turkey. The 
various kinds of pheasants and peafowls are 
grown more for fancy than for profit. At all 
events, they are not to be considered as impor- 
tant farm fowls. 

TUKKEYS 

The wild turkey is a native of North America 
and still abounds in the natural forests of Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia and other Atlantic states. It 
is also found in Tennessee and Kentucky and is 
abundant in some of the western states, but its 
principal home in the eastern United States at 
the present time is in the mountainous regions of 
the Atlantic states. Like many other species of 
game it is rapidly disappearing, due to the great 
changes made by man in his onward march 
of civilization. Man is a great disturbing force 
of nature's equilibrium when he removes the for- 
ests in order to prepare the land for cultiva- 

(261) 



262 Farm Poultry 

tion. He not only destroys the home of the 
game by removing the woods but causes frequent 
forest fires, which are destructive at the brood- 
ing season. Probably the number of wild turkeys 
is diminishing, yet, owing to their shy nature, 
they are not likely to become entirely extinct for 
many years. 

The wild turkeys that are now found in the 
forests of North America are those .which have 
been strong enough to withstand the unfavorable 
conditions to which they have been subjected and 
w^hich have escaped their natural enemies. In 
other words, they furnish a most excellent illus- 
tration of the "survival of the fittest." Persons 
who have had experience in breeding wild tur- 
keys in confinement are convinced that they will 
do well and retain good breeding qualities on less 
food than will be required to keep domesticated 
turkeys in the same condition. 

Wild turkeys appear to be somewhat taller in 
proportion to their weight than domesticated ones. 
"They thrive and keep in good condition on less 
food than the domestic turkey. Their slender, 
alert appearance is striking to the most careless 
observer. Their breadth of shoulder, deep chest 
and firm step are noticeable when they are com- 
pared with the domestic turkey. The head is 
small in proportion to the body, and has a clean, 
game -like appearance. The eyes are large, bright 



Wild Turkeys 263 

hazel, and full of intelligence and suspicion . . . 
Gobblers, when full grown, are about four feet 
high and weigh, according to the section of the 
country they are taken in, from 15 to 20 pounds 
each. They do not get their full growth until the 
end of the third year, and increase in weight and 
beauty for several years after that. Gobblers 
weighing 36 and 40 pounds have often been shot. 
. . . Wild gobblers mate later and the hens lay 
later than domestic turkeys. The flesh of wild 
birds is of excellent flavor and is more delicate 
and juicy than that of domestic turkeys."* 

The Ehode Island Experiment Station speaks 
as follows of wild turkey crosses: t "Where 
wild turkeys are plenty, crosses between wild and 
domestic birds frequently occur without design on 
the part of the owner of the latter. Scores of 
cases are recorded where a wild gobbler from the 
woods has taken possession of a flock of common 
turkeys, sometimes after first battling with and 
killing the domestic gobbler. The results of such 
a cross in almost every ca^e have been so satis- 
factory that such matings are much desired by 
turkey raisers in those sections, and young wild 
birds are caught for this purpose and brought up 
with common young turkeys. Very often nests 
of wild turkey eggs are found in the woods and 

* Bulletin 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 116. 
tSarae, p. 119. 



264 Farm Poultry 

hatched on the farm. These domesticated wild 
birds usually persist in roosting separate from the 
others, generally in the woods or on the top of 
a house or barn. When raised from the Q^g they 
become more gentle and fearless than the domestic 
turkey, but if chased or frightened they recover 
their wild habits very quickly. Wild turkey 
crosses are hardier and healthier than common 
turkeys and rarely have disease. Half-blood hens 
are generally too wild, but half-blood gobblers 
are not as wild and are suitable for crossing with 
domestic hens. A small proportion of wild blood 
improves the size, form, and general appearance, 
as well as the vigor, without being a disadvantage 
in any way. A quarter -wild cross is better for 
practical breeding than a pure wild or half wild 
bird. Half -wild crosses do well if allowed a large 
range, but are not well suited to woody lands or as 
easily kept on small places as the domestic turkey. 

"Wild turkey hens under domestication and 
wild first- cross hens often disappear in the spring 
Snd are not seen until fall, when they usually 
return to their own home with a brood of nearly 
full-grown turkeys. Half-blood mothers make 
their young too wild. Half-bloods reared by 
domestic turkey hens are not much inclined to 
stray. Quarter -bloods under certain conditions 
may be as wild as the wild bird of the woods. 

"The flock of half- wild birds reared at the Sta- 



Wild Turkey Crosses 265 

tion this season was very tame and unsuspicious 
until several were snared for exhibition at the 
Kingston Fair. Since then they have been so shy 
that we were unable to secure another lot. They 
take flight immediately if a suspicious movement 
is made. They will be more easily caught later 
in the season. The wild blood gives the cross an 
astonishing ability to care for themselves. It is 
apt to have the strongest influence in breeding. 
If first crosses are bred together the stock resem- 
bles the pure wild, and after several generations 
cannot be distinguished from the pure wild by 
good judges. The older the bird grows the more 
he shows the wild blood. Crosses have much of 
the superior game flavor of the wild and com- 
mand a higher price for the table. 

"Some wild bronze crosses that are half and 
three-quarters wild blood are as large as the pure 
bronze turkeys. Several years' crossing, however, 
with the selection of the largest for breeding each 
season, gives the greatest size."* 

Domesticated turkeys partake largely of the 
nature of the wild stock from which they have 
descended. Many of the domesticated flocks 
have been crossed on the domesticated fowl within 
recent years. 

Turkeys that are commonly reared for profit 
on farms are of a roving disposition and do not 

* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



266 Farm Poultry 

thrive well when closely confined. On this 
account, they are not suited to rearing in large 
numbers on small areas. Owners of small farms 
or village lots, therefore, are practically debarred 
from rearing large numbers of turkeys, particu- 
larly if they are to be kept from trespassing 
on the holdings of their neighbors. While the 
mother turkey with her brood may be confined in 
very limited areas for a time during the brooding 
season, yet as the young become older and are 
prepared to seek their own living, they thrive 
much better if close restrictions are not enforced. 
Whoever attempts to rear turkeys in consider- 
able numbers should therefore . plan to give them 
a wide range, particularly during the latter part 
of their growth. They are not able to adapt 
themselves to artificial conditions as well as chick- 
ens or ducks or even geese. 

In North America there are two distinct species 
of native turkeys; one inhabits the United States 
and Mexico, the other is found in Honduras. The 
latter is sometimes spoken of as the ocellated 
turkey. The former has been separated into sev- 
eral varieties, the best known of which are the 
Mexican turkey, from which the common domes- 
ticated turkey is descended, and the wild turkey 
of the eastern United States. The Mexican form 
is somewhat smaller than the wild form of the 
eastern United States. 



Description of Varieties 
TUKKEYS — VAKIETIES 



267 



The recognized varieties of the domestic turkey 
are the Bronze, Narragansett, White Holland, Buff, 
Slate, and Black. 

TJie Bronze. — The Bronze is the largest variety. 
The American Standard of Perfection gives the 




Fig. 88. Bronze turkey, male. 

standard weights for this turkey, adult male 36 
pounds, adult female 20 pounds. The origin of 
the variety is obscure. Some authorities main- 
tain that it was formed by crossing the North 
American wild on the domesticated Black. The 
wandering disposition of the Bronze is thought 



268 Farm Poultry 

to be due to a comparatively recent infusion of 
wild blood. This is unquestionably the most 
popular variety, owing largely, no doubt, to its 
great size. Breeders and judges of turkeys lay 
great stress on the size of the Bronze. Correct 
plumage is not sufficient to redeem an exhibition 
bird if it lacks in size. (Fig. 88.) 

Narragansett. — This variety takes its name 
from Narragansett Bay in Rhode Island. This 
state has long been noted for the large numbers 
and excellence of the turkeys which it has pro- 
duced. The reputation of the Rhode Island tur- 
keys was made largely when the Narragansetts 
were chiefly reared. In more recent years the 
Bronze has supplanted the Narragansetts to a 
considerable extent, which was due to the greater 
size of the former, although the latter are not 
small turkeys. The Standard gives the weight 
for Narragansetts as 30 pounds for the cock and 
18 for the hen. They are of a gray color, al- 
though some bronze luster is seen on the wings. 
They have plump, thick- set bodies and grow 
rapidly. They mature early and do not roam so 
far as the Bronze. 

The White Holland,— This variety is some- 
times known as the White Turkey. It is not so 
popular as some other kinds, yet in a few local- 
ities it is a favorite. Many breeders who have 
had an opportunity to compare this turkey with 



Description of Varieties 269 

others assert that it is one of the most profit- 
able kinds. The White Hollands grow rapidly 
and attain a heavy weight at an early age. 

"The White Hollands are perhaps the best lay- 
ers among tm*keys. It is sometimes reckoned as 
a fault that few hens want to hatch early in the 
season, and a large number of eggs and no broody 
hens is not an uncommon occurrence. ... I 
believe them to be good turkeys and worthy of 
the best efforts of the breeders and farmers in 
general, and think no one need be seriously dis- 
appointed in them if he goes ahead properly and 
knows what he is doing." * The standard weight 
for White Hollands is given for cock 26 pounds 
and hen 16 pounds. 

Buff turkey. — The Buff variety is thought by 
many to be the most beautiful of turkeys. It is 
not known how the variety originated, although 
it was probably produced by crossing. The Buffs 
are a little heavier than the White Hollands and 
are profitable fowls. 

Slate turkey. — The Slate turkeys in many re- 
spects are very much like the Buffs. The color 
is thought by many to be the chief difference. 
They are fine -looking fowls and are to be recom- 
mended as profitable for the farm. 

Black turkey. — This is an old variety. It has 
been bred in England for a long time. "In 

*Geo. Enty, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them"-Myrick, p. 28. 



270 Farm Poultry 

certain parts of England it was, until quite 
recently, the favorite variety, and is known there 
as the Black Norfolk." * 



TURKEYS — GENERAL CARE 

At no time in the life of the turkey does its 
wild nature assert itself more than at the laying 
season. The domesticated turkey hen still loves 
secrecy as regards her nesting place. Half- 
wild turkeys, when given their liberty, have 
frequently eluded all attempts on the part of 
watchers to follow them and to locate their nests. 
Many successful turkey raisers who do not keep 
the breeding fowls confined within large in- 
closures provide nesting places for them in more 
or less secluded places. An empty barrel turned 
on its side or pieces of wide boards nailed together 
so that a low roof is formed over a nest on the 
ground answer the purpose. As a good turkey 
hen will lay more eggs than she can cover well 
at one sitting, it is customary to remove the eggs 
from the nast daily and to place the first laid 
under broody hens. The last eggs should be given 
the turkey hen to hatch. 

Some attempts have been made to rear tur- 
keys by means of artificial incubators and brood- 
ers, but in many instances the results have been 

*H. S. Babcock, in "Turkeys and How to Grow Them"-Myrick, p. 22. 



Breeding Stock 271 

far from satisfactory. Most turkey raisers depend 
upon natural methods of incubation and brood- 
ing. Turkey eggs hatch in twenty-eight days. 

Selection of breeding stock. — Many farmers un- 
doubtedly make mistakes in selecting young and 
immature birds for breeding stock. Experienced 
turkey raisers insist on breeding from mature and 
well-tried birds. If a hen proves to be a good 
breeder and a careful mother she should be kept as 
long as she proves profitable. The young of mature 
parents are thought to be considerably stronger than 
those of immature fowls. Two- or three -year old 
toms are sometimes preferred to older ones on ac- 
count of the great weight which older birds attain. 

"Mr. Grinnell, who lives on a farm near the 
Experiment Station, raises from 50 to 60 turkeys 
every season. Others in his neighborhood have 
poor success. He does not believe in changing 
gobblers when a good one has been secured. 
When he gets one that sires good stock he keeps 
him as long as he is good for anything. The 
one he now has is four years old. The hens are 
also kept as long as they live. . . . One hen that 
he has had for five years was said to have been 
eight years old when he bought her. She still 
lays from two to three litters of eggs each season, 
and her turkeys are larger than the others. "* 

Care and food for the young. — Newly hatched 

* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



272 Farm Poultry 

poults are very delicate and require close atten- 
tion on the part of the attendant. First of all, 
they must be kept dry. Wet or damp quarters 
should be avoided. A dry, porous soil is consid- 
ered much more satisfactory than a heavy one, 
though the latter be underdrained. "Young tur- 
keys should not be out in heavy showers until 
their backs are well covered with feathers. If 
they get wet they may die from chill unless put 
in a warm room to dry. Black or red pepper 
and ginger in the food or drinking water aid 
them to overcome a chill, and are of great value 
on cold or damp days and are a preventive of 
bowel troubles in both old and young turkeys."* 

For the first few weeks the young should be 
kept in dry places and not permitted to travel 
through tall grass when it is wet. During the 
warm and dry parts of the day they may be 
given a run on short grass or cultivated land. 
Many poultrymen prefer placing the hen in a 
large, airy coop and giving the young a free 
run, rather than to confine the young and give the 
hen her freedom. In either case it is advisable 
to restrict the run of the young for a few days. 
It should not be omitted to move the coops 
frequently, that the young may be brooded on 
fresh ground. 

The first food should be soft and easily di- 

* Bulletin No. 25, Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 



Food for Young Fowls 



273 



gestible. Most turkey raisers highly recommend 
hard-boiled eggs chopped fine. This is a most 
excellent food, but should be fed in moderation 
and in connection with other soft foods. Stale 
bread dipped in milk and allowed to drain until 
it becomes dry enough to crumble is a most ex- 
cellent first food. This may be fed until the 




Fig. 89. Turkey house — Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station. 

young are several days old. It should be borne 
in mind that the bread, or any other food for 
that matter, should not be fed in a sloppy or 
very moist condition. Coarse bread baked for the 
purpose, if softened with milk, is highly prized. 
Scalded bran and corn meal to which some finely 
chopped hard-boiled eggs have been added is 
relished, and is a satisfactory food. As the poults 
become older ^ they may be fed bran, Indian meal 



274 Farm Poultry 

and ground oats (the hulls removed) which have 
been thoroughly soaked. Freshly moistened meal 
foods are not equal to the same food that has 
become thoroughly softened by soaking or scald- 
ing. Thick sour milk or curd may be mixed with 
the soft foods to good advantage. 

When the birds are beginning to "feather out," 
cracked corn may be added to the ration. Some 
successful poultry raisers, however, recommend 
soaking the cracked corn at first. Later in the 
season whole corn may be fed. Old corn is pre- 
ferred to new. 

GUINEA FOWLS 

Under ordinary farm conditions the domes- 
ticated guineas can hardly be called profitable 
farm fowls. They lay fairly well during the sum- 
mer time if given a wide range, but owing to 
the disposition of the hen to hide her nest the 
eggs are often entirely lost. Many instances are 
known in which the hen has secreted her nest 
and continued to lay until it became well filled, 
when it would be abandoned for another. This 
in turn might be left to the same fate as the 
first. Instances are known of three nests being 
well filled with eggs before the hen showed any 
disposition to incubate. 

Objections nave been made to the fowl on 
account of its sharp, screeching voice. It is true 



Guineas 275 

that guineas make more noise than chickens and 
that their voices are somewhat piercing, yet they 
are not objectionable to most people unless the 
poultry yard and other places frequented by them 
are very near the dwelling house. The writer 
has heard several farmers express a liking for 




Fig. 90. A guinea hen (one-sixth size). 

these birds because they are ''rather noisy." 
They are "company." Like geese, guineas are 
inclined to give an alarm if the poultry yard is 
molested. 

Guineas like a wide range. They prefer to 
perch far from the ground — preferably in trees 
— although they will not infrequently perch with 



276 Farm Poultry 

hens in poultry houses during severe weather, 
if given an opportunity to do so. Guineas are 
naturally shy and are easily frightened, although 
they may become tame with kind and careful 
treatment. They are not specially prized for the 
quality of their flesh, although in some parts of 
the United States young fowls are considered a 
delicacy. 

PEAFOWLS 

Peafowls are reared in small numbers by those 
who delight in seeing the most gorgeous plumage 
of domesticated fowls. They are not reared for 
their flesh nor for egg production. It is recorded,* 
however, that in the reign of Henry VI of Eng- 
land, peacocks were highly esteemed as a deli- 
cacy. In some respects peafowls are quite as near 
the wild forms from which they have descended 
as any species of domesticated fowls. They delight 
in perching at a great distance from the ground 
and frequently fly to the roofs of tall farm build- 
ings. They fly easily and gracefully. 

The male or cock bird is by far the most gor- 
geous of farm fowls. Peafowls are reared almost 
wholly on account of the proud and brilliant 
appearance of the male. The brilliant coloring 
of the head and neck feathers and his large and 
beautiful tail, make him a source of delight to 

*"Book of Poultry," Wright, p. 531. 



Peafowls and Pigeons 277 

children and an interesting bird to adults. The 
hen is modest appearing and unattractive in color- 
ing. The cock is generally troublesome in the 
poultry yard on account of his disposition to kill 
other kinds of poultry, particularly young chick- 
ens and ducks. Cocks have been known to attack 
mature fowls and even children and adults. The 
male does not acquire his most brilliant and per- 
fect plumage until he is more than three years of 
age. The peacock is disliked by some on ac- 
count of his loud screeching voice, which he is 
inclined to use freely. 

PIGEONS 

While pigeons are not usually mentioned among 
the various kinds of profitable farm stock, yet 
the possibilities of profitable returns are so great 
that a somewhat full discussion of pigeon- rearing 
is warranted. However, only a short discussion 
will be devoted to the business as yielding money 
returns on the investment. To lovers of animal 
life, pigeon -rearing offers a most fascinating field, 
particularly to the boys and girls who delight 
in caring for stock that they may call their own. 
Many a farm boy has become interested in ani- 
mal life and has learned many things which have 
been of great use to him in after years, that he 
acquired by caring for and studying the needs of 



278 Farm Poultry 

pets which had been given wholly to his charge. 
Farm boys become dissatisfied with the farm 
and decide to leave it chiefly for two reasons — 
because they are not interested in farm life and 
work, and because they have not been taught 
how to make quick returns and good profits for 
the money invested. The rearing of pigeons will 
often afford satisfactory first lessons and may re- 
veal possibilities that will be sufficiently enticing 
when considered from a standpoint of income 
alone. Interest in animal life, particularly those 
forms that are easily handled and controlled, serves 
a most useful purpose in leading the young mind 
along profitable channels of development. Inter- 
est in pigeon -rearing cannot fail to develop to 
some extent the powers of observation. Other 
things being equal, the boy who sees most will 
have the best understanding of the subject in 
question. So long as knowledge is power, then 
those who are the closest observers will not only 
understand best the matter under consideration 
but will be best prepared to meet the greater 
problems that each individual is required, sooner 
or later, to solve for himself. 

The care of pigeons may be given almost 
wholly to quite young boys and girls, if a few 
simple directions for feeding and care be under- 
stood and a suitable home be provided for the 
birds. On most farms only a small money out- 



Pigeon Rearing 



279 



lay will be required and very little trouble is 
necessary to prepare comfortable quarters for 
breeding pigeons, particularly if the young be 
sold as squabs. 

"The shelters for squab breeders should not 
be too cold, although the experienced can raise 
them in almost any old shell of a building, as 




Fig. 91. Pigeon cote and aviary — Rhode Island Agricultural College. 

far north as New York city. The fittings are 
only nests, perches and drinking and bath foun- 
tains, a space of two square feet of floor being 
counted to each bird, with never less than twice 
as much room in the flight yards, in the open air. 
The flight spaces are best enclosed by inch-mesh 
wire net, as this excludes sparrows, which are 
arrant thieves and fighters. The netting usually 
runs overhead, to the highest point of the roof." * 

*" Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, p. 140. 



280 Farm Poultry 

A fine quality of squabs finds a ready market 
in the great cities. They are quoted from about 
50 cents to $3.75 per dozen, and frequently the 
expert producers obtain nearly twice this amount. 
For the money outlay squab-raising offers a tempt- 
ing field for those who are willing to give atten- 
tion to the many little things. To those who are 
not willing to observe closely the needs of the 
birds and to use good judgment in meeting these 
demands, pigeon- raising will probably prove un- 
satisfactory, affording neither pleasure nor profit. 
The negligent or careless person should not enter 
into the poultry business, since success depends 
on the many minor things which cannot be neg- 
lected. Squab -rearing may be made very profit- 
able if "eternal vigilance," the price of success, 
be given. 

Mo^t of the squabs that are now sold in the 
markets of the large cities average from one- 
half pound to three-quarters of a pound each, 
while the choicest birds may weigh nearly twice 
as much.* Many experienced squab raisers pre- 
fer a cross of Runts and Homers for fine birds. 
The mother should be a Homer, as these birds 
are better breeders and better mothers than the 
Eunts. 

The health of pigeons should receive close 
attention. They should be given an opportunity 

*" Pocket Money Poultry," Norys, page 143. 



Squab Bearing 281 

to bathe, and such conditions should be provided 
as will produce the strongest and most vigorous 
squabs. 

A variety of gi'ains is usually fed. Cracked 
corn, wheat, hulled oats, millet, hemp, and other 
small seeds are much used. As light-colored 
squabs are preferred, cracked corn is a favorite 
food. Pigeons are particularly fond of salt. 
Many pigeon raisei's keep a supply of salt ac- 
cessible to the birds at all times. As the old 
birds feed the squabs, it is essential that the 
parents be well fed. A clean sanded floor is an 
excellent place for feeding the old birds 



CHAPTER XV 

PBEPABIXG AXD MAEKEIIXG POULTBY PEG DUCTS 

Those who are preparing poultiy for market 
should constantly Ijear in mind that it is of the 
utmost importance to have the products reach 
the market in the most perfect condition. Flesh 
that is clean and bright always presents a more 
attractive appearance than that which is discol- 
ored. Fowls are sometimes discolored as the 
result of improper methods of packing and ship- 
ping. Careless packing and rough handling. 
— the latter too often given by the employees 
of railroads and express companies — frequently 
cause a good article to reach the market in a poor 
condition, and it therefore brings a low price. 
It is the privilege of every shipper to prepare his 
fowls in such a manner that they may reach the 
market in as inviting condition as possible. The 
best a^jpearing fowls always sell at a higher price 
than equally as good stock that has been im- 
properly prepared or is imtidy. Commission men 
state that properly prepared meat will readily 
sell for twice as much as an equally good aiticle 
that is poorly arranged and iminviting. 

(282) 



Preparing Poultry for Market 283 

DKESSING POULTRY 

Those who have taken the trouble to study 
the conditions of the markets in the great cities 
say, without hesitation, that the good stock is 
sold first and that the poor and indifferent be- 
comes a drug on the market. New York com- 
mission men are quite positive in the conviction 
that shippers who are able to prepare their 
product in uniformly fine order readily acquire a 
reputation among buyers, enabling them to se- 
cure a somewhat higher price than the same 
stock would bring if prepared in an indifferent 
manner. 

In order to arrange products for market in 
the best possible manner, it is necessary to study 
the details of killing, dressing and packing, which 
will enable the producer to send not only those 
articles which the market demands, but to send 
them in the best possible condition. Fowls should 
not be fed for some time before killing. At 
least twelve hours, and in many cases twenty -four 
hours, should elapse after the last feeding before 
the killing takes place. At any rate, the crops 
of the chickens should become entirely empty. 
Some cities have passed ordinances prohibiting 
the selling of dressed fowls whose crops are not 
free from food. In such markets the law makes 
it imperative that solid food should be withheld 



284 Farm Poultry 

Jong enough before killing to permit the crops 
to become entirely empty. 

If for any reason a few fowls should gain 
access to food just before killing time, and it 
is not desirable to retain them longer on the 
farm, they may be killed and dressed with the 
rest, and after picking, a short clean-cut incision 
may be made through the skin, which will per- 
mit the removal of the crop. An incision should 
be made in the crop, the crop turned inside 
out, thoroughly cleaned and returned. The 
practice of removing grain from the crop by 
forcing it out through the mouth by external 
pressure is not recommended; in fact, it is 
condemned in positive terms by dealers. While 
in some instances it n %j be possible to empty 
the crop wit out breaking the skin, yet it will 
be necessary to use sufficient force in many cases 
to cause discoloration. 

There are two methods used in preparing 
dressed fowls for market. These are known as 
dry -picking and scalding. It may be stated in 
a general way that the finest quality of chickens 
and turkeys commands higher prices when dry- 
picked. On the other hand, lean or thin poul- 
try does not present so good an appearance 
as when scalded and "plumped," as will be 
explained later, and therefore does not sell so 
well. Ducks and geese are usually scalded. 



Killivg and Picking 285 

with the exception of young, fat ducks, which are 
known on the market as "green ducks." These 
are usually dry -picked. 

Killing. — Those who are required to perform 
the operation of killing fowls should bear in 
mind that it is desirable to remove all the blood 
from the body that can be withdrawn, and to 
cause the fowl to suffer as little pain as possible. 
In other words, the operator should be as hu- 
mane as circumstances will allow. He may, at 
the same time, prepare his birds in the best pos- 
sible manner. 

All kinds of fowls are recommended to be 
killed by cutting through the roof of the mouth. 
This will cut through an artery, which will cause 
the blood to flow freely. A sharp -pointed knife 
should be used for this purpose, which should 
pierce the base of the brain; it will cause death 
at once. It is said by experts that a fowl 
may be killed so quickly that the blood will not 
flow as freely as desired and that the feathers 
will be removed with more difficulty, especially 
if dry- picking is practiced. The ideal condition 
is to have the knife enter the brain and par- 
alyze the fowl, and while in this condition to 
have it bleed to death. If the fowl becomes 
paralyzed the muscles are relaxed and the 
feathers are easily removed. Too much stress 
cannot be laid on the importance of thorough 



286 Farm Poultry 

bleeding. Americans prefer to have all flesh free 
from blood. The keeping quality is thought to 
be considerably enhanced by thorough bleeding. 
In all the operations of killing and picking, care 
should be taken to avoid bruising the flesh, 
tearing the skin or breaking the bones. 

It is customary to suspend fowls by the feet 
before they are killed. In the case of heavy 
fowls they should be so suspended that they will 
not strike each other with their wings when flop- 
ping, or strike their wings against any hard 
object. Fowls bleed best when suspended head 
downward at the time of killing. 

Dry -picking. — Immediately after killing, the 
feathers should be removed carefully and cleanly. 
Dressed fowls should be sent to market, if pos- 
sible, without the skin being broken at any 
place. It is usually customary to commence pick- 
ing immediately after sticking. "Green ducks" 
and broilers are usually picked while the bleed- 
ing is taking place. As soon as the incision is 
made with the knife, the birds are stunned by 
a blow on the head and then picking com- 
mences at once. It is essential in dry- picking 
to remove the feathers as soon as possible after 
the birds are killed. 

When fowls are picked dry, to be shipped in 
cold weather, they should be hung in a cool place 
until thoroughly cold before they are packed. 



Dry -picking and Scalding 287 

Poultry should not be packed until all of the ani- 
mal heat has disappeared. A cool place is pref- 
erable to one so cold that the flesh will freeze 
quickly. If the skin is wet when the fowls are 
packed, they are likely to present a more or less 
discolored appearance when offered for sale. 
When dry -picked fowls are to be packed in ice 
for hot weather shipment, they may be plunged 
in cold water for a short time immediately after 
picking and then placed in a tank of ice water 
and left for several hours. Some extensive duck 
raisers make a practice of leaving the picked 
ducks in cold water over night. Either ice water 
or cold spring water may be used for this pur- 
pose. 

Young fowls, especially ducks, that have 
many pin feathers are sometimes prepared by 
shaving with a sharp knife after the feathers 
are removed. This removes the projecting parts 
of the pin feathers and will help to place the 
fowl in the best possible condition for market. 
Of course white birds are much preferred on 
this account to colored ones. The English use 
a short, thin-bladed knife in removing the pin 
feathers. This operation is called "stubbing," 
and is generally performed by women and chil- 
dren. 

Scalding. — When birds are scalded thej^ should 
be immersed in hot water immediately after they 



288 Farm Poultry 

are through bleeding. The water should be a 
little below the boiling point. It is recommended 
to immerse the bkds thoroughly in the water 
three or four times, lifting them out between each 
immersion in order to give them a little airing. 
Immediately after scalding, chickens and turkeys 
should be picked clean, and care be taken not 
to break the skin. The skin of young fat fowls 
is more likely to tear than that of older ones. 
As these birds are the most valuable, it is neces- 
sary to exercise the greatest care and skill in 
preparing them. After scalding ducks and geese, 
it is recommended to wrap them in a cloth for 
about two minutes, in order that the down may 
be more readily removed with the feathers. 

Plumping, — Commission men recommend that 
scalded poultry be "plumped" after picking. That 
is, after the fowls are carefully picked, they should 
be dipped in hot water for a few seconds. This 
water should be about the same temperature as 
that used for scalding, perhaps not quite so warm. 
Then they are removed and placed at once in 
cold water, where they should remain from fif- 
teen to twenty minutes. If fowls that are scalded 
and "plumped" in this manner are to be shipped 
dry, they should be hung up until the skin be- 
comes thoroughly dry. If they are to be packed 
in ice for warm weather shipment they may 
be placed in cold water for several hours, when 



Preparing for Shipment 289 

they will be ready to pack. It is not necessary 
to dry the fowls when they are to be packed 
in ice. 

In scalding fowls, care should be taken not 
to leave them in the water too long. Over- scald- 
ing will cause the outer surface of the skin to 
peel off, and, consequently, they will not present 
a good appearance. If they are under -scalded, 
the feathers cannot be removed so readily, and 
salesm.en find that they do not appear so well 
when exposed for sale. 

PACKING AND SHIPPING 

If the fowls are to be packed dry for cool 
wciather shipment, neat packages that are clean, 
and as light as will carry the contents safely, are 
to be preferred. Uniform packages are preferred 
to various kinds of rough boxes. Clean barrels 
or neatly prepared cases should be used. It is 
recommended to use cases or boxes for turkeys 
and geese, and barrels for chickens. In pack- 
ing poultry, it is customary to use clean, dry 
wheat or rye straw. The straw should be free 
from chaff, and hand-threshed is preferred to 
that which has been threshed by a machine. 
A layer of straw should be placed in the bottom 
of the package, and then alternate layers of poul- 
try and straw until the package is full. Heavy 



290 Farm Poultry 

paper is placed by some poultry shippers between 
the poultry and the sides of the package. 

All fowls should be perfectly clean and dry 
before packing. If there is any moisture or blood 
about the head it should be removed with a cloth. 
If a fowl is inclined to bleed a little at the mouth, 
the mouth should be thoroughly wiped out and 
a little cotton inserted to absorb any liquid that 
might otherwise cause discoloration. 

Packing in ice. — Large barrels are usually em- 
ployed for this purpose. If sugar barrels are used, 
they should be thoroughly washed, preferably 
with hot water, to remove all traces of sugar. 
Expert packers place a layer of cracked ice in 
the bottom of the barrel, then a layer of poultry, 
then another layer of ice, and so on until the 
barrel is full. After the top layer of poultry is 
in place, there should be a layer of cracked ice 
placed on top. On this layer spread a piece of 
burlap which is sufficiently large to cover well 
the top of the barrel. On this burlap some 
cracked ice may be placed and on top of all a 
large piece of ice. Over all place another piece 
of burlap. This may be held in place by driv- 
ing the top hoop on over the burlap. 

It is recommended to place the fowls heads 
outward, backs up and the feet toward the middle 
of the barrel. That is, the fowls as placed in 
the barrel should slope from the center toward 



Pacl'ing for Shipment 291 

the staves. This will cause the ice as it melts 
to work from the center toward the outside of 
the barrel. In transit the ice nearest to the out- 
side of the barrel will melt first. It is, therefore, 
of considerable importance to have those parts of 
the fowls nearest to the outside of the barrel 
cooled by the ice which is in the center of the 
barrel. The water and ice from the center will 
continually work toward the outside. 

Frozen 'poultry. — Poultry is frequently shipped 
during cold weather in a frozen condition. Com- 
mission men recommend that only the best quality 
of poultry should be shipped in this manner. 
Only dry -picked fowls should be selected for 
freezing. When poultry is frozen by natural 
out-of-door temperature, cases may be filled when 
the fowls are thoroughly frozen and the tem- 
perature is low. It is not necessary to use ice 
in packing when frozen fowls are shipped. Poul- 
try that is frozen solid may be kept for a long 
time, even for months, provided it does not thaw 
out. 

Marking packages. — If dressed poultry is sent 
to middlemen, each package should be marked 
with the name and address of the commission 
man and also with the name and address of 
the sender. It is also well to mark on each 
package its contents, whether chickens, fowls, 
turkeys, ducks or geese, and the number of birds 



292 Farm Poultry 

or gross weight. It should not be neglected to 
forward advice by mail, giving a correct statement 
of all goods sent. If inferior or second quality 
fowls are shipped, it is always best to state to 
the commission man the contents of the pack- 
age and also the quality. If a poor quality of 
goods is sent, he is sure to find it out, and it 
may save him considerable annoyance if he knows 
what the package contains before it is opened. 

Time of shipment. — When poultry or eggs are 
sent to commission men, it should be borne in 
mind that these products, if for immediate sale, 
should reach them in the middle or early part of 
the week. Many commission men sell very little 
after Friday noon. In a general way, it may be 
stated that Saturday is retailers' day; that the 
retailers are supposed to have their stock on hand 
before Saturday, and that they do not go to the 
commission men for their supplies during that 
day. Shipments are often made so that they 
reach their destination late in the week and are, 
therefore, carried over until the beginning of 
the next week. 

English and German methods. — The English 
method of preparing fowls for market is, in many 
respects, very different from that in vogue in 
the United States, and undoubtedly would not 
be acceptable to the most fastidious in this coun- 
try, who have become accustomed to other meth- 



k 



European Methods 293 

ods of dressing and marketing fowls. The Eng- 
lish method of preparing young fowls for market, 
which have been fattened by the cramming pro- 
cess and which afford a most delicate flesh, is 
to kill them without bleeding. While in the 
United States great stress is laid on removing 
as much blood as possible from the body, the 
English prefer not to have the fowl bled at all. 
The operator holds the fowl with his left hand 
and grasps the head with his right. He gives a 
forcible, forward pull with his right hand, hold- 
ing the head at right angles to the neck. He 
uses enough force to dislocate the neck just be- 
low the head. This kills the fowl at once and 
frequently causes considerable blood to settle in 
the neck, although no blood leaves the body. 
When dry -picking is practiced the fowls are 
picked at once after the neck is dislocated. Pick- 
ers become very expert in dry-picking fowls. As 
the hand moves back and forth over the body 
the feathers gradually disappear, and in less time 
than it requires to describe the operation prop- 
erly an expert picker will have the feathers 
removed from a good specimen. While the Eng- 
lish do not meet our requirements as regards 
the drawing of blood, yet in some respects they 
take more pains in preparing the birds for market 
than Americans do. 

As soon as the birds are picked, they are fre- 



294 Farm Poultry 

quently placed on what is known as a ''forming 
machine/' prepared for the purpose and weighted, 
in order to make the bodies appear plump. The 
legs are folded underneath the body, which gives 
a plumper appearance. Before the fowls are 
placed on the machine the breast bone is some- 
times broken down, though not always. The 
stern of the fowl is pressed firmly against a 
smooth, hard object in order to give it a flattened 
appearance. This appearance is still further in- 
creased by the use of the machine on which the 
fowls are placed. They are left on the shelves 
until cool. Sometimes, however, they are sent to 
a near-by market before the animal heat has left 
the body. The English method of preparing 
fowls for market has some advantages over that 
in use in the United States. There is no doubt 
that fowls will appear plumper when cooled 
on a "forming machine," after the English fash- 
ion, than when hung up by the feet to cool ac- 
cording to the almost universal custom in America. 
The "forming machine,"* see Fig. 92, is made 
by arranging conveniently a series of shelves so 
that each shelf has a backboard placed at nearly 
a right angle to it. The shelves slope backward 
somewhat, which keeps the fowls which are placed 
upon them snugly in the angle formed by the shelf 
and the backboard. The width of the shelf is 

*" Fattening Fowls," E. Cobb. 



The "^^ Forming Machine 



295 



determined somewhat by the size of the fowls 
to be placed upon it. Those who are extensively 
engaged in fattening fowls have different sizes 
of "forming machines." For medium- sized 
chickens, shelves about seven inches wide are 
used. The English become very skilful in using 
the machine to the best advantage. The opera- 




rig. 92. An English "forming machine," which is used to give a plump 
appearance to dressed chickens. 

tion of preparing the fowls by the use of this 
machine may be briefly described as follows: 
They first squeeze out any matter from the vent, 
then grasp the bird, back uppermost, with both 
hands. The thumbs are placed on the back with 
the fingers clasping the legs, which are bent 
underneath the body. While held in this position 



296 



Farm Poultry 



the bird is jammed against a smooth wall or 
post, which forces the "parson's nose" upward 
so that it points above the back. During this 
operation the body is held firmly, but care is 
taken not to mar the skin. The bird is placed 
carefully in the machine so that the "parson's 




Fig. 93. A capon as prepared for 
the English market by use of a 
" forming machine " From " Fat- 
tening Fowls," by Cobb. 



nose" is held straight up against the backboard, 
the head and neck hanging over the front of the 
shelf. When the shelf is filled with birds, that 
are tightly packed side by side, a board about 
four inches wide is placed on the fowls and 
heavily weighted. They are left in this position 
until cold. See Fig. 93. 



Shipping Live Poultry 297 

The English frequently break down the breast 
bone of young fowls that are not very fat, in order 
to give them a plumper appearance. This may 
be done by grasping the fowl with both hands 
and pressing with the thumbs on the breast until 
the bone, or the structure which supports it, 
breaks and leaves the fowl with a less prominent 
breast. The Germans frequently break down 
the breast bone of chickens and ducks by strik- 
ing a smart blow on the most prominent part 
of the bone with a smooth, well-rounded paddle. 

SHIPPING LIVE POULTEY 

When live poultry is shipped long distances 
to market, it should be placed in coops which are 
high enough to permit the fowls to stand erect. 
It is also an advantage, and will give comfort to 
the occupants of the coop, if the top is made 
of slats which are far enough apart so that they 
may straighten up and pass their heads between 
the slats. 

Shipping crates or coops should be as light as 
is consistent with the requisite strength. Large 
and heavy crates are awkward to handle and 
are expensive to transport. Large coops on many 
accounts are not so desirable as small ones, par- 
ticularly if they are well filled with heavy fowls. 
It should be borne in mind that these shipping 



298 Farm Poultry 

crates or coops are required to be handled quickly, 
and if they are heavy, rougher usage is given 
them than would be given to smaller ones. These 
coops are usually sent by express, and the em- 
ployees of the express companies find it neces- 
sary to work rapidly and often are prevented 
from handling the coops carefully. 

If large coops are used, they should have 
one or more partitions across them so that the 
fowls will not all be thrown to one side, if for 
any reason the coop becomes tilted. When tilted, 
large coops without partitions cause great dis- 
comfort to the occupants on the lower side of 
the coop, and in many cases if the coop remains 
tipped for any considerable time, death may re- 
sult from suffocation. 

It is important that the fowls of a crate or 
coop should be uniform; that is, the sexes should 
not be shipped in the same division of a crate 
and young fowls should not be sent with old 
ones. It frequently happens that a commission 
man or dealer can find ready sale for a uniform 
lot of fowls but is unable to dispose of a mixed 
lot. It is often inconvenient, if not impossible, 
for him to sort and grade them, consequently 
the fowls are sold at a sacrifice. Middlemen 
and dealers of the great cities are busy and are 
accustomed to do a great deal of business in 
a short time. They do not have the time and 



Shipping Live Poultry mid Eggs 299 

conveniences for the grading that should be done 
before the fowls are placed in the shipping 
crates. They want things ready. 

HANDLING EGGS 

Eggs that are not perfectly clean should not 
be sent to market. Indifferent or careless poul- 
trymen permit the nests to become fouled, and 
many eggs are not clean when gathered. Eggs 
may be stained from nest material, and they are 
sometimes colored with blood, particularly the 
first eggs of pullets. Stains of various kinds 
may be readily removed with a moistened cloth 
on which has been dusted a little cooking soda. 
Poultrymen who make a specialty of fancy eggs 
are particular to send clean eggs to market, 
and also take considerable 
pains to ship only those 
of uniform size and color. 
Uniformity is of great im- 
portance when the highest 
prices are to be secured. 
As a fruit-grower recog- 
nizes that a few large Fig. 94. 

1 -1 • 1 •J.^ A convenient egg-carrier. 

apples when mixed with 

those of medium size do positive injury, so far 
as the market value is concerned, so expert egg- 
producers recognize that a few large eggs mixed 




300 Farm Poultry 

with those of average size detract from the ap- 
pearance, and, consequently, from the market 
value. The purchaser is attracted by uniform- 
ity. If he sees that all the eggs on top of 
the crate are of uniform size, color, and shape, 
he naturally expects uniformity throughout. On 
the other hand, if he finds that they are of all 
sizes, he cannot expect uniformity in the lower 
layers. If one's flock consists of pure-bred stock, 
the eggs should be fairly uniform in shape and 
color and also in size, although large eggs and 
abnormally small ones will occasionally appear; 
these may be kept for home consumption or the 
local market. 

Much has been said about marketing eggs in 
a strictly fresh condition. Those who have had 
years of experience, and have established a repu- 
tation that has become almost national, are con- 
vinced that the market will not distinguish be- 
tween an egg one day old and one four days old. 
An egg four or five days old is in a perfectly 
fresh condition, if it has had good treatment. 
If it has been subjected to the heat of an incu- 
bator for that length of time, it would not be 
fresh. Eggs may be sent to market hundreds 
of miles by express and placed in the hands of 
the consumer when not more than a few days 
old. Whenever a poultryman who aims to pro- 
duce the finest quality of eggs desires to estab- 



Shipping Eggs 



301 



lish a reputation for himself, it will probably be 
necessary for him, at first, to send his eggs 
under a guaranty that they were produced by 
his own flock, and that he knows them to be 
strictly first-class in every respect. 

Shipping cases. — Eggs are usually sent to 
market in shipping crates which are constructed 
specially for this purpose. The standard size 
crate holds thirty 
dozens. See Fig. 
95. These crates, 
or shipping cases, 
contain trays which 
fit into the outer 
case, one above the 
other. The trays are 
divided by paste- 
board partitions into many separate compart- 
ments, each compartment holding one ^^g. 
Some shipping cases have wire springs instead 
of the pasteboard partitions to hold the eggs. 
The English prefer what is known as the 
Irish shipping case. This consists of a case 
not unlike a small dry goods box. In this is 
placed a layer of sea grass similar to that used 
in packing china and glassware. The grass 
is placed in the form of a shallow hen's nest. 
This is filled with eggs. On these is placed 
another layer of sea grass and another layer of 




Fig. 95. A thirty-dozeu egg-shippiug case. 



302 Farm Poultry 

eggs, the layers of eggs and sea grass alternating 
until the case is nearly full. More sea grass is 
then put on and the cover fastened by nails or 
screws. While this case is preferred by the Eng- 
lish, it is doubtful whether it would be sufficient 
to withstand the rough usage given by the Ameri- 
can express companies and freight lines. 

Many commission men prefer to have eggs 
shipped to them in barrels, packed in dry fine- 
cut clean wheat or rye straw. A barrel will 
hold about seventy dozen, if properly packed. 

PEESEKVING EGGS 

During the spring and early summer months, 
when a large proportion of the hens that are 
kept on farms are Liying, the price of eggs is 
frequently very low, particularly in local markets 
where most of the farm eggs are sold. In such 
times many eggs are preserved until late fall, 
when the price is usually the highest. Many 
persons make a business of preserving eggs in 
order to reap the benefit of the advance in price ; 
others preserve them in times of plenty for 
home consumption when the hens are not lay- 
ing. Many others would attempt to keep them 
if they but knew of a simple and safe way of 
preserving them. To such persons it may be 
said that there is no well-known way of keeping 



Egg Preservatives 303 

eggs absolutely fresh for any considerable length 
of time. There are several methods, however, 
that are sufficiently satisfactory to warrant the 
preservation of eggs both for the market and for 
home use. Preserved eggs are thought to be 
injured by cold sooner than fiesh ones. The fol- 
lowing gives the results of experiments made in 
Germany with various preservatives:* 

'' The Berliner Markthallenzeitung reports about 
experiments made for the purpose of securing the 
most rational method of preserving eggs. . . . 
Twenty methods were selected for these experi- 
ments. In the first days of July, four hundred 
fresh eggs were prepared according to these 
methods (twenty eggs for each method), to be 
opened for use at the end of the month of Feb- 
ruary. . . . After eight months of preservation 
the eggs were opened for use, and the twenty 
different methods employed gave the most hetero- 
geneous results: ... 

1. Eggs put for preservation in salt water were all bad, 

2. Eggs wrapped in paper, 80 per cent bad. 

3. Eggs preserved in a solution of salicylic acid and glycerin, 

80 per cent bad. 

4. Eggs rubbed with salt, 70 per cent bad. 

5. Eggs preserved in bran, 70 per cent bad. 

6. Eggs provided with a cover of paraffin, 70 per cent bad. 

7. Eggs varnished with a solution of glycerin and salicylic 

acid, 70 per cent bad. 

* United States Consular Reports, Dec, 1897, pp. oG.'i, 564. — Thieriot. 



304 Farm Poultry 

8. Eggs put in boiling water for twelve to fifteen seconds, 

50 per cent bad. 

9. Eggs treated with a solution of alum, 50 per cent bad. 

10. Eggs put in a solution of salicylic acid, 50 per cent bad. 

11. Eggs varnished with water-glass (wasserglas), 40 per cent 

bad. 

12. Eggs varnished with collodion, 40 per cent bad. 

13. Eggs covered with lac, 40 per cent bad. 

14. Eggs varnished with sward, 20 per cent bad. 

15. Eggs preserved in ashes of wood, 20 per cent bad. 

16. Eggs treated with boric acid and water-glass, 20 per cent 

bad. 

17. Eggs treated with manganate of potassa, 20 per cent bad. 

18. Eggs varnished with vaseline, all good. 

19. Eggs preserved in lime-water, all good. 

20. Eggs preserved in a solution of water-glass, all good. 

"The last three methods are consequently to be 
considered the best ones, especially the preserva- 
tion in a solution of water-glass, as varnishing the 
eggs with vaseline takes too much time, and the 
treatment with lime-water sometimes commun- 
icates to the eggs a disagreeable odor and 
taste." 

Water-glass."^ — "We tried the keeping of eggs 
with sodium silicate (water-glass) with good re- 
sults. Sodium silicate is a compound containing 
silicon, sodium and oxygen in the proportion of 
one, two and three respectively. It can be pur- 
chased from druggists in the form of a semi-fluid 
resembling thick sugar syrup, for which it might 
easily be mistaken. 

*24th Annual Report Ontario Agricultural College, pp. 193, 194. 



Egg Preservatives 305 

"An experiment was conducted in our depart- 
ment for the purpose of determining the most 
effective degree of concentration. The result of 
the experiment is of considerable importance, 
inasmuch as the cost of the mixture may be 
greatly reduced without destroying its value. 

"On the 27tli of May, we took twelve dozen 
eggs, all known to be perfectly fresh, and pre- 
pared the following solutions: 

No. 1. One part of water-glass in the semi-fluid form to ten 
parts water. 

No. 2. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to fifteen 
parts water. 

No. 3. One part water-glass in the semi-liquid form to twenty- 
parts water. 

"The first solution was found to be too strong, 
as it caused the eggs to float. The second was 
all right in this respect. The third, though much 
weaker, gave perfect satisfaction. We divided 
the eggs into three lots of four dozen each, and 
put one lot into each solution. We tested them 
from time ta time, and in every case found them 
perfectly fresh; and, on breaking, we noticed that 
the yolk stood up exactly as in new-laid eggs, 
and did not show the slightest tendency towards 
decay. 

"We tested one -half dozen from each solution 
on the first of December, and could not detect 
any difference in the appearance or quality in 



306 Farm Poultry 

the eggs out of the different solutions, all being 
perfectly fresh after being in the solution six 
months. . . 

"In order to use water-glass successfully, the 
following plan should be adopted: Take one part 
by measure of water-glass, say one gallon, and 
twenty parts by measure of water that has been 
boiled (twenty gallons), and allow the water to 
cool; then place the water-glass and water in a 
vessel ; stir the ingredients well together ; put the 
eggs into the tub or vat in which they are to 
be kept, and pour the solution over them until 
the topmost layer is completely covered. The 
reason for boiling the water is to kill any putre- 
factive germs which may be in the water at the 
time. If water-glass is purchased by the cwt., 
it should be procured for $2.50 to $3 per cwt. 
(112 lbs.). 

" So far as we know this is the best solution yet 
tried for the preservation of eggs. When taken 
out of it the eggs have the appearance of fresh- 
laid eggs, and when they are broken the yolk 
stands up exactly as in new-laid eggs, without 
showing the slightest tendency toward decay. 
It is first necessary, before boiling eggs that have 
been kept in this solution, as in lime pickle, to 
puncture the shell with a needle, otherwise the 
shell will crack as soon as placed in hot water, 
owing to the pores of the shell being closed." 



:Egg rreservatives 3U7 

Lime-water.— A most satisfactory lime-water 
preservative may be made of the following in- 
gredients : 

X t>u. fresh quicklime. 
15 lbs. salt. 
% lb. cream of tartar. 
40 gallons of water. 

Slake the lime thoroughly and add the water 
and salt. Stir it well. Dissolve the cream of 
tartar in a little water and add to the whole. Stir 
well. Let the solution stand until it is fully- 
settled. Remove the clear liquid by dipping or by 
means of a siphon. Place the liquid in a cask or 
tank and put in the eggs. It is desirable to keep 
the eggs in a cool place that has an even tem- 
perature. Have at least one and one -half inches 
of the liquid above the eggs. New oak casks 
should not be used on account of the liability to 
color the eggs. 

Cold storage. — Eggs that are kept in large 
quantities by dealers are placed chiefly in cold 
storage. A low, even temperature is maintained 
by the use of ice, or by means of ice machines. 
Ice machines have largely superseded the use 
of natural ice in large establishments. 



CHAPTER XYI 

DISEASES AND ENEMIES 

Only an exhaustive treatise by an expert can 
properly discuss the many diseases of domestic 
fowls. Many of the troubles are insidious and 
are not yet well understood. However, a few 
general hints on the more common diseases, and 
a discussion of some of the parasites, may be 
valuable to those who have not the time or in- 
clination to study the subject in detail. The one 
paramount safeguard against disease is thorough 
cleanliness; then avoid introducing infected fowls. 

LICE 

Various kinds of domesticated fowls and wild 
birds are infested with parasites that are known 
under the popular name of '4ice." There are 
several species of lice which infest chickens. 
Some kinds are found only on a certain class 
of poultry, while others are sometimes found on 
more than one kind. There are at least four 
species which are very troublesome to chicken 
raisers, particularly to those who do not keep 

(308) 



Lice and Filth 309 

their poultry- yards and houses in a cleanly con- 
dition. Filth and dampness seem to favor the 
propagation of these pests. Fowls are naturally 
cleanly, particularly those that have their liberty 
and, consequently, live under conditions nearest 
the natural ones. Weak fowls are always more 
likely to be troubled with lice than are strong, 
healthy, vigorous ones. Many years ago it was 
thought that filth and dampness produced lice. 
Lice can be produced only by the introduction of 
an infected bird or by placing the bird in in- 
fected quarters. The life history of these para- 
sites is so well known that it is not thought 
possible for them to be introduced in any other 
way. The species of lice which infest chickens' 
vary considerably as to their shape and size, yet 
in their habits they closely resemble each other. 
They are very small insects, varying from one- 
fifth to less than one - fiftieth of an inch in 
length. These parasites rarely pierce the skin 
and suck the blood, as do mites and fleas. 
They cause much annoyance by crawling over 
the surface, and sometimes they bite the skin 
in a way that causes considerable irritation and 
perhaps some inflammation. When fowls are 
once infested they may become unthrifty and 
unprofitable if not given proper care. It has 
been estimated that a single pair of lice may pro- 
duce, through the quickly successive generations 



310 Farm Poultry 

which would be reared within three months, 
more than 100,000 individuals. As the weaker 
fowls of the flock are most likely to be infested, 
lice are often detected by the unthrifty condition 
of such birds. Upon examination, large numbers 
of these lice may be seen crawling over the skin 
underneath the feathers. They will likely be 
most prevalent on those parts which the fowl 
cannot reach with the bill. 

Bemedies. — Fowls may be effectually treated 
in several ways. Substances may be put upon 
the bird which will poison the lice, or the pests 
may be driven off by making the fowl an uncon- 
genial home for them, or they may be killed by 
the application of substances, like oil, which 
stop the breathing pores and thus cause them 
to die of suffocation. The last plan is prefer- 
able in the case of young chickens and weak 
fowls. Little chickens when but a few days 
old are frequently infested with lice from the 
mother or from the surroundings. As these little 
chickens are delicate, a few lice will cause 
serious trouble. In this case, it is usually advis- 
able to place a few drops of oil on the head 
and perhaps on the wings and throat of each 
chicken. Sweet oil or lard oil may be used. 
Other oils of about the same consistency may 
answer the purpose quite as well. Older fowls 
should be given an opportunity to take dust 



Remedies 311 

baths. This is nature's method and is effectual 
if the fowls will bathe thoroughly. Many of the 
heavier fowls, however, do not care to take dust 
baths frequently, nor to do the work thoroughly 
when they undertake it; consequently it is fre- 
quently necessary to use artificial methods to kill 
or drive away the lice, when they once become 
well established on adult fowls. Powdered sul- 
fur or fresh insect powder dusted well among n, 
the feathers is found to be e fficients Fowls are>//«^^-^ 
sometimes placed in comparatively tight boxes 
with their heads protruding through close-fitting 
openings, the box then being filled with sulfur 
fumes for several minutes. This is said to com- 
pletely destroy the pests and in no way to injure 
the fowls. 

When poultry houses become infested with lice 
a complete cleansing of the building is required. 
Movable fixtures should be taken out and the 
walls thoroughly washed and cleansed. The in- 
terior should be freshly whitewashed or sprayed 
with chlorides or other efficient insecticides. 
Kerosene emulsion is effective if the spraying is 
thoroughly done. Some modern spraying ma- 
chines are so constructed that kerosene oil may 
be mixed with water in a fine spray to answer 
every purpose. This method is easier than to 
apply the kerosene in the form of a soap emul- 
sion. 



312 Farm Poultry 

MITES 

These parasites are frequently called "lice," 
although they are entirely different from the ani- 
mals described under that name. Mites are 
usually smaller than lice. The red poultry mite 
is one of the greatest pests. It is frequently 
called the "summer louse" and is found in great 
numbers in the poultry house and other places 
frequented by fowls in the summer time. It 
is frequently seen about cracks and crevices, 
underneath and about the perches, and also in 
the nests, particularly those of sitting hens. It 
multiplies rapidly, so that if a few have been 
introduced into a poultry house, the place may 
become overrun within a short time. 

The habit of these pests is very different from 
that of lice. The mites breed in cracks and 
chinks about the perches and nests and go on 
the body of the fowls at night to feed. They 
pierce the skin and fill themselves with blood. 
Though they are small, each insect can remove 
an appreciable amount of bl6od. The fowl not 
only suffers from the loss of blood but is dis- 
turbed during the night when it should have per- 
fect rest and be free from annoyance. Sitting 
hens are so much annoyed that they are com- 
pelled to leave the nests in order to relieve 
themselves of the parasites. If the nests and 



Mites — Gapes 313 

perches, and the cracks and crevices about them, 
are kept free from the- pests the fowls will not 
be distm^bed. Free use of kerosene oil or kero- 
sene emulsion about the nests and perches will 
usually suffice. Some manufacturers have taken 
advantage of the habit of these pests and con- 
struct perches which will not permit them to 
pass from the places of concealment about the 
poultry house to the body of the fowl, each perch 
being supported by means of slender iron sup- 
ports, the bases of which are placed in small 
cups filled with oil. 

A little care and watchfulness on the part of 
the poultry attendant to keep the poultry house 
entirely free from mites will protect the fowls 
from these pests. 

GAPES 

Gapes sometimes destroys large numbers of 
small chickens; in fact, on some farms during 
certain seasons it seems almost impossible to rear 
broods of young chickens that are entirely free 
from it, particularly if the young chickens are 
kept under the ordinary conditions. It is well 
known that gapes is caused by a small worm 
known as Syngarm^s tracliealis. This worm is of 
a reddish color and varies in length from three- 
eighths to three -fourths of an inch. The two sexes 
are united, which fact has given rise to the name 



314 Farm Poultry 

of "branched worm." On account of its color it is 
also sometimes known as the "red worm." It is 
stated that the male is always attached to the 
female, the former being the smaller of the two. 
These worms are found in the windpipe or trachea 
of the chickens, where they are attached to the 
membranous lining of this air -passage. They 
are nourished by sucking the blood of the fowl 
and cause considerable irritation and inflamma- 
tion, particularly if the chickens are weak. The 
stronger and more robust undoubtedly are con- 
siderably inconvenienced, but the attacks are not 
severe enough to prevent them from making 
a fairly good growth. It is stated, on good 
authority, that as many as thirty or forty of 
these worms have been found in a single chicken. 

Dr. H. D. Walker, Newburgh, N. Y., states that 
the earthworm is the natural host of this pest. 
Chickens, robins and other birds have become 
infested with the gape worm by feeding them 
infested earthworms. Comparatively few gape 
worms are sufficient to destroy the life of weak 
young chickens. Many more, however, would 
not necessarily destroy a vigorous bird, either 
young or adult. These worms are frequently dis- 
lodged by coughing or sneezing. When they are 
thrown out in this manner other fowls may eat 
them and in turn become infected. 

Remedies,— Keep little chickens in a dry place 



Gape-ivorm 315 

and away from infected ground. As the weak 
fowls are likely to succumb first, it is of the 
utmost importance that the brood be kept in as 
healthy and vigorous condition as possible. 

It is recommended to dislodge the worms by 
introducing into the trachea a horsehair, doubled 
so as to form a loop, then give it several turns, 
and slowly withdraw it. As the loop is with- 
drawn the dislodged worms may be removed 
or coughed up by the fowl. This operation re- 
peated several times will frequently give relief 
to aggravated cases. Other good authorities 
recommend the introduction of a feather which 
has been moistened with turpentine. The tur- 
pentine will cause the dislodgment of the worms 
and the chickens will sneeze or cough them up. 

Some practical poultry-keepers recommend 
placing an infested brood in a barrel or com- 
paratively tight box and dusting in the com- 
partment a considerable quantity of fine air- 
slaked lime. The infested chickens will be re- 
quired to breathe the air heavily laden with this 
fine lime, which will cause the dislodgment of 
many of the worms. While this treatment is 
rather severe and may cause the death of some 
of the weakest of the birds, yet it will some- 
times prove efficacious in saving the larger pro- 
portion of a brood which otherwise might suc- 
cumb, 



316 Farm Poultry 

Preventive measures are more satisfactory than 
remedial ones. Keep the chickens in a dry place 
and in as healthy and vigorous a condition as 
possible, and away from sources of contamina- 
tion. 

EOUP 

Roup is a common disease among farm poul- 
try and one that often causes serious loss. When 
roup is permitted to remain in a flock unchecked, 
the loss from death alone may be considerable, 
and the loss occasioned by many sick birds which 
are for a long time thoroughly incapacitated for 
usefulness may be quite as great. Roup is con- 
sidered contagious by the most eminent authori- 
ties. It passes from one fowl to another of the 
same flock, and may be carried from one flock 
to another by the introduction of infected birds. 
It has been considered by some as being pro- 
duced by unfavorable conditions. This is not 
strictly true. Undoubtedly unsanitary conditions 
are potent factors in the development of the dis- 
ease when the fowls are once exposed. Tender 
fowls, or those requirmg particularly good care, 
are more susceptible to roup than are the more 
healthy or robust. The introduction of the spe- 
cific organism of the disease is necessary for its 
development; hence it is a communicable disease. 

Symptoms. — Among the first symptoms that 



Boup 317 

will be noticed is a thin, watery discharge from 
the nostrils, followed by obstructed breathing. A 
few cases of harsh breathing that had not pre- 
viously been manifest should be looked upon with 
suspicion. These cases may be readily detected 
by passing through the poultry house in the 
evening when all is quiet. In the later stages of 
the disease the watery discharge at the nostrils 
becomes thicker and more sticky, which causes 
frequent sneezing in order to prevent the air- 
passages from becoming completely closed. 

Dr. D. E. Salmon says* that the inflammation 
extends, as the disease advances, from the mem- 
brane of the nasal cavities to those of other 
connecting passages. As the orbital space which 
surrounds the eye connects with the nasal pas- 
sage, this is frequently involved. The mem- 
brane of the orbital cavity becomes inflamed and 
swollen, and in severe cases apparently forces 
the eye from its socket. The sides of the head 
become unduly swollen and the fowl frequently 
becomes entirely blind, the birds presenting a 
most unsightly appearance. Breathing is per- 
formed with difficulty, and a thick discharge, at 
this time, may escape from the nostrils. Death 
frequently follows after these serious symptoms. 

Treatment. — Prevent healthy birds from be- 
coming contaminated by removing them to clean 

*"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 32-34. 



318 Farm Poultry 

quarters, or by the removal of the sick birds and 
thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting the poultry 
house. Give wholesome and easily digested food 
and keep the fowls in as healthy and vigorous 
condition as possible. Antiseptic solutions are 
to be injected into the nostrils and on the roof 
of the mouth. If large swellings have appeared 
which are filled with cheesy pus, this should be 
removed and these cavities be injected with an- 
tiseptics. The following solutions are recom- 
mended : 

1. Two per cent solution of creoline. 

2. Two per cent solution of carbolic acid. 

3. Peroxide of hydrogen and water, equal parts. 

4. One grain of permanganate of potash to an 

ounce of water. 

5. Kerosene oil mixed with equal parts of lard 

or olive oil. Some poultrymen recommend 
the use of pure kerosene oil, a drop in 
each nostril of the infected fowl. 

When diphtheritic roup develops, white patches 
are frequently seen on the roof of the mouth 
and on the connecting air -passages. Later these 
patches become more or less yellow. Dr. Sal- 
mon also says* that the sick birds should be 
placed in clean, warm, well -ventilated quarters, 
where they can be readily examined and where 
i;hey will not be exposed to drafts of air. In 

*"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 224, 225. 



Treatment for Roup 319 

other words, these quarters should be most favor- 
able for invalids. He recommends the applica- 
tion, to the diphtheritic spots in the mouth and 
eyes, of a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid in 
water or a 2 per cent solution of creoline, and that 
some of the same should be injected in small 
quantities into the nostrils. The removal of this 
diphtheritic membrane is recommended if it can 
be accomplished without bleeding. Tincture of 
iodine has been applied to the diseased parts 
successfully. Boric acid, 15 grains to an ounce 
of water, may be applied to the roof of the 
mouth, nostrils and eyes. This application is 
often made with benefit, and is considered safe. 
Dr. Salmon further recommends the use of chlo- 
rate of potassium and salicylic acid in the fol- 
lowing proportions: 2 grains of salicylic acid and 
35 grains of chlorate in one ounce of water, to 
which may be added 1 ounce of glycerine. This 
should be applied two or three times a day on 
the diphtheritic spots and may be given internally 
in doses of about a teaspoonful to adult fowls. 

" Disinfect thoroughly by sprinkling the walls of 
the building and the ground frequented by the 
diseased fowls with carbolic acid water (1 % 
ounces of carbolic acid to a quart of water) . 
Wash feeding troughs, water dishes, etc., with 
the same solution. Cover the earth with straw 
or boards and keep the fowls perfectly dry. 



320 Farm Poultrij 

"Mix with the soft food several hours before 
feeding, as a curative and a preventive, a pinch 
of the following mixture for each fowl: 

Hyposulfite of soda 50 grams 

Salicylate of soda 50 * * 

Pulverized yellow gentian 200 " 

Pulverized ginger , 200 ' ' 

Pulverized sulfate of iron 100 " 

"Give sulfate of iron in the drinking water, 
1% grams to a quart of water." 



* 



CHOLEKA 

Dr. Salmon states t that fowl cholera attacks 
chickens, geese, ducks, turkeys, pigeons, and in 
fact all varieties of domesticated fowls. The 
infection often takes place through drinking 
water, or partaking of food that is contaminated 
by the excrement of sick birds. It is possible 
for fowls to be infected through wounds or by 
means of the germs which may be inhaled in the 
form of dust. He further states that the disease 
is generally brought in by the introduction of in- 
fected birds or with eggs that have been pur- 
chased for hatching. This disease may be com- 
municated to mice and rabbits by inoculation. 

Symptoms .—''The symptoms of American fowl 
cholera were first described by Dr. Salmon in 

*" Journal D'Agriculture Pratique," 1895, Tome 2, pp. 913, 914. 
t"The Diseases of Poultry," pp. 233, 234. 



Cholera 321 

1880. They include the voiding of feces, of 
which the part that is normally white is yel- 
low. The white part of the feces is excreted by 
the kidneys, and the yellow discoloration of this 
excrement is usually the lirst indication of dis- 
ease. Shortly thereafter the droppings become 
thin and fluid, and they are voided frequently 
and enveloped by a layer of thin mucus. The 
fowl becomes depressed; it stands still or assumes 
a sitting posture, goes into a sunny, warm place, 
if possible. The plumage becomes ruffled, the 
head is drawn down, the comb becomes pale 
and bloodless, and the appetite is depressed or 
lost. The depression and torpidity of the fowl 
increase until it seems to become unconscious. 
. . . The bird then becomes thin and weak, 
and sometimes passes into a stupor and dies. 
In other cases, it may have convulsions prior to 
death."* 

Treatment. — "The treatment of individual 
fowls afflicted with such a highly contagious dis- 
ease as true fowl cholera is not to be recom- 
mended, because, in the first place, so long as 
the infected fowl remains around there is danger 
that its poisonous products may be carried to 
healthy birds; secondly, there is little chance of 
curing it and it is hardly worth while to try. 

♦"Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Pearson & Warren, Bulletin 
No. 17, Pa. State Dept. Agr. 



322 Farm Poultry 

"The important point in this connection is the 
prevention of disease, and fowl cholera can usu- 
ally be stopped by preventing the introduction 
of fowls suffering from it, or that come from 
infected localities. If the disease is once intro- 
duced the most stringent measures should be 
enforced as regards cleanliness, disinfection, and 
the total destruction of the carcasses of the dead 
birds. The birds that are still healthy should be 
removed from the flock and placed in a whole- 
some locality. The droppings from the diseased 
fowls should be burned or thoroughly disinfected 
by mixing with a 10 per cent solution of sul- 
furic acid or with a quantity of lime equal in 
amount to the manure. The building should be 
disinfected by cleaning it very thoroughly, flush- 
ing the fl_oor with a saturated solution of cop- 
peras and spraying the interior with a 5 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid, followed by whitewash- 
ing. If the pens and runs can be abandoned 
for a year and grass or crops grown in them, 
this is the best plan, but if it is not possible to 
do this, they should be cleaned with as great 
thoroughness as possible and slaked lime scat- 
tered over the surface of the earth, which should 
be plowed. 

"It should be remembered that the germs of 
fowl cholera may be carried in the feathers, so 
that a perfectly healthy fowl, coming from a 



Scaly Legs 323 

diseased flock, may carry the disease to another 
flock a long distance away. These germs may 
also be carried on the shoes and clothing of per- 
sons ; by vermin, as rats or mice, or they may 
become attached to light objects J such as leaves, 
and be carried long distances by the wind. If 
the disease exists among the fowls along the 
watercourse, those lower down the stream may 
receive the germs with their water supply. So, 
whenever this disease prevails in a locality, one 
cannot guard his fowls too carefully." * 



SCALY LEGS 

This disease is caused by a parasite somewhat 
similar to that of the mange of the cat and dog. 
The disease is considered to be contagious, though 
it does not spread rapidly. It is most frequently 
noticed in old fowls of the heavy breeds, as of 
the Asiatic types. Ducks and geese are not 
affected with this trouble. 

Treatment. — Soak with oil. Sweet oil or lard 
oil mixed with kerosene is recommended. Kero- 
sene alone is sometimes applied with most excel- 
lent results. However, it is a somewhat harsher 
treatment than is necessary. Those who keep on 
hand a stock solution of kerosene emulsion may 

*" Diseases and Enemies of Poultry," Bulletin No. 17, Pa. State 
Dept. Agr. 



324 Farm Poultry 

find this a most excellent remedy for scaly legs. 
It should be applied thoroughly. A few appli- 
cations are usually sufficient. If thorough work 
is to be accomplished the poultry houses should 
be disinfected. 

FKEEZING 

Valuable fowls sometimes die from frosted 
combs and wattles. Remedial measures are not 
so satisfactory as preventive ones. The most 
that can be done is to give good nursing. If 
the fowls are discovered to be frosted before the 
organs affected have thawed out, the frost should 
be removed by applications of cold water or snow. 
The gradual thawing of the frozen parts may 
sometimes save theim After thawing has taken 
place, the parts should be smeared with grease, 
vaseline or cosmoline. It is thought to be advan- 
tageous to keep the fowls in a fairly cool room. 

BUMBLE FOOT 

Bumble foot is caused by bruises on the bottom 
of the feet. These bruises are sometimes fol- 
lowed by swellings which suppurate and become 
greatly enlarged if they are not lanced and the 
pus permitted to escape. Causes which produce 
bruises should be removed. Heavy fowls that 
are required to fly from rather high perches and 



Egg- and Feather -eating 325 

to alight on hard and uneven surfaces are liable 
to suffer from bumble foot. In serious cases it 
is advisable to inclose the feet in little bags filled 
with poultice in order to induce free suppuration. 
If the pus is not permitted to escape, it becomes 
cheesy and finally dries sufficiently to form a hard 
mass, which produces a permanent enlargement. 

, EGG -EATING 

This habit sometimes becomes a most serious 
vice in the poultry yard. It spreads from fowl 
to fowl. Fowls become very fond of eggs when 
they once learn to eat them. The habit usually 
starts through accident, either by eggs being 
broken or frozen. If eggs are not permitted 
to freeze in the poultry house, and care is taken 
to prevent their being broken, the habit is not 
likely to be contracted. As soon as it is dis- 
covered that a fowl has the habit well formed 
this fowl should be removed from the others be- 
fore the habit is spread. Unless the bird is a 
specially valuable one, it is often advisable to 
inflict the death penalty. 

FEATHER -EATING 

Feather- eating, like egg- eating, may become a 
most objectionable habit. Fowls of active breeds 



326 Farm Poultry 

that are closely confined are more likely to learn 
feather -eating or feather -pulling than those that 
are given wide range and plenty of wholesome 
food. Close confinement with improper ration 
will often lead to this vice. When once the habit 
is well formed it may become most troublesome. 
Fowls pluck the feathers from each other. Those 
on the back at the root of the tail or high up 
on the breast are likely to be plucked first. If 
but few fowls have learned the habit, it is some- 
times recommended to file the beak so that the 
front and sides will not close tightly. This will 
prevent the bird from pulling feathers but will 
permit it to eat ordinary food readily. When sev- 
eral fowls of a flock have but slightly contracted 
the habit, a wide range with change of diet, in- 
cluding plenty of animal food, will usually suffice 
to correct the evil. Above all, permit the fowls 
to take plenty of exercise. 

DIAKKHCEA 

Diarrhoea is caused by some irritation of the 
digestive system. Depression and loss of appe- 
tite frequently precede it. If the diarrhoea is 
at all serious the excrement may be mixed with 
mucus or blood. Fowls suffering from this 
disease should be placed in comfortable quarters 
and given clean, wholesome food that is easily 



Biarrhma 327 

digested. Foods of gelatinous nature, like cooked 
linseed meal, are specially recommended. Some 
poultrymen place a high value on charcoal which 
has been broken into small pieces, about the size 
of a kernel of corn. This is placed before them 
and left to the judgment of the fowls to eat 
what is needed. A few drops of laudanum is 
recommended in severe cases. 



SALT POISONING 

Salt in small doses, as before stated, is very 
beneficial, but large quantities may produce death. 
It is stated on good authority that one-half an 
ounce to one ounce is fatal to a chicken. Salt 
fish and some salt meats, and the brine in which 
meats have been preserved, are specially dan- 
gerous. 

Whites of eggs and the liquor of boiled flax- 
seed are recommended as remedies. Laudanum 
and finely powdered chalk in water, together or 
singly, may sometimes be given with good effect. 
Laudanum is especially valuable when consider- 
able pain is manifest. 

RATS 

Rats sometimes become very troublesome in 
poultry houses, and the question of their externn- 



328 Farm Poultry 

nation is often a most perplexing one. Precau- 
tionary measures are usually the most satisfactory. 
If the buildings are so constructed that rats can- 
not burrow under them, the battle is largely won. 
If, however, the rats find suitable homes about 
poultry houses, and cannot be driven out by 
ordinary methods, much annoyance and often 
severe loss may result. When traps and cats 
will not suffice, more extreme measures must be' 
adopted. Sometimes it is advisable to remove 
the fowls temporarily and hunt the rats by 
means of ferrets. In some cases it may be 
necessary to resort to poisoning. In a gen- 
eral way it may be stated that animals should 
not be poisoned except in extreme cases. The 
author has on several occasions found it neces- 
sary to use poison to rid the premises of these 
pests. A little strychnine was placed in each of 
many small pieces of cheese. These little pieces 
were dropped into the rat holes and other 
places frequented by the vermin, care being 
taken in every case to cover the holes with 
boards so that the fowls would be prevented 
from gaining access to the poison. While the 
fowls were not killed or in any way injured by 
this method of killing rats, the practice is always 
accompanied with more or less danger, particu- 
larly as it is necessary to place the poison near 
places frequented by the fowls. 



Hawks, Crows, Etc. 329 

HAWKS, CROWS, ETC. 

It is sometimes necessary to protect the yards 
and runs from the depredations of these chicken 
thieves. Crows sometimes become so bold that 
they are serious pests in yards where little 
chickens are given their liberty. Covering the 
yard with wire netting is a perfect protection. 
If there are bushes in the yard, under which 
the fowls may hide, the depredations will be 
much lessened. 




APPENDIX 



SOME IMPORTANT POULTRY PUBLICATIONS 

BOOKS 

AMERICAN Standard of Perfection. — American Poultry Associa- 
tion. Published by the Association. 

American Standard Poultry Book. — John Taggart. Published 
by Wm. L. Allison, New York. 

Book of Poultry. — L. Wright. Published by Cassell & Co., 
London. 

Burnham's New Poultry Book. — Geo. P. Burnham. Published 
by Lee & Shepard, Boston. 

Diseases of Poultry. —Dr. D. E. Salmon. Published by Geo. 
E. Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. 

Domestic Poultry Book.— T. B. Miner. Published by American 
News Company, New York. 

Illustrated Book of Domestic Poultry. — Martin Doyle. Pub- 
lished by Porter & Coats, Philadelphia. 

Lloyd's Modern Poultry Book.— W. B. Lloyd. Published by 
Howard & Wilson Publishing Company, Chicago. 

New Egg Farm. — H. H. Stoddard. Published by Orange Judd 
Company, New York. 

People's Practical Poultry Book. — W. M. Lewis. Published 
by Excelsior Publishing House, New Y^ork. 

Pigeons, Their Structure, Varieties, Habits and Manage- 
ment. — Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Published by Routledge & Sons, 
London. 

Pocket Money Poultry. — Myra V. Norys. Published by Geo. 
E. Howard & Co., Washington, D. C. 

(331) 



332 Appendix 

Poultry Book.— Wm. B. Tegetmeier. Published by Routledge 

& Sons, London. 
Poultry Culture.— I. K. Felch. Published by Donohue, Hen- 

neberry & Co., Chicago. 
Practical Poultry Keeper.— L. Wright. Published by Orange 

Judd Company, New York. 
Profitable Poultry Keeping. — Stephen Beale. Published by 

Routledge & Sons, London. 
Profits in Poultry.— Orange Judd Company. Published by 

Orange Judd Company, New York. 
Sheep, Swine and Poultry.— Robert Jennings. Published by 

Keystone Publishing Company, Philadelphia. 
Turkeys, and How to Grow Them.— Herbert Myrick. Published 

by Orange Judd Company, New York. 



PAMPHLETS AND BULLETINS 

Andalusian Fowls.— L. C. Verrey. Published by The Fanciers' 
Gazette, London. 

Animal Food for Poultry. — Bulletin No. 171, New York Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. Published by the New York 
Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. 

Barred and White Plymouth Rocks. — Joseph Wallace. Pub- 
lished by Ferris Publishing Company, Albany, N. Y, 

Capon^ and Caponizing.— Bulletin No. 31, Oregon Agricultural 
Experiment Station. Published by the Oregon Agricultural 
Experiment Station, Corvallis, Ore. 

Capons and Caponizing. — Bulletin No. 20, Rhode Island Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station. Published by the Rhode Island 
Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 

Capons for Profit.— T. Greiner. Published by the Author, La 
Salle, N. Y. 

Diseases-and Enemies of Poultry. — Pearson and Warren, Bul- 
letin No. 17. Published by Pennsylvania State Department 
of Agriculture, Hairisburg, Pa. 

Duck Culture. — James Rankin. Published by the Author, 
South Easton, Mass, 



Appendix 333 

Ducks and Geese.— G. E. Howard, Farmers' Bulletin No. 64. 
Published by Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Economy of Using Animal Food in Poultry Feeding. — Bulletin 
No. 149. Published by New York Agricultural Experiment 
Station, Geneva, N. Y. 

Experiments with Geese. — Eighth Annual Report. Published 
by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kings- 
ton, R. I. 

Experiments with Turkeys. — Sixth Annual Report. Published 
by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kings- 
ton, R. I. 

Fattening Fowls.— Ernest Cobb. Published by The Feathered 
World, London. 

Feeding Experiments with Laying Hens. — Bulletin No. 90. 
Published by New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Geneva, N. Y. 

Fowls: Care and Feeding. — G. C. Watson, Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 41. Published by United States Department of Agricul- 
ture, Washington, D. C. 

Gapeworms of Fowls.— H. D. Walker. Published by the Author, 
Newburg, N. Y. 

Goose Breeding.— Tenth Annual Report. Published by Rhode 
Island Agricultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 

Hamburgs Up to Date. —Charles Holt. Published by The 
Feathered World, London. 

Incubation and Its Natural Laws. — C. A. Cyphers. Published 
by the Author, Wayland, N. Y. 

Indian Game Fowl.— G. T. Whitefield. Published by The Fan- 
ciers' Gazette, London. 

Infectious Diseases of Turkeys.— Seventh Annual Report. 
Published by Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Kingston, R. I. 

Poultry Keeping for Profit. — Bulletin No. 130. Published 
by North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West 
Raleigh, N. C. 

Parasites of Poultry.— Bulletin No. 131. Published by North 
Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, West Raleigh, N. C. 



334 Appendix 

Standard Varieties of Chickens.— G. E. Howard, Farmers' 
Bulletin No. 64. Published by United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Turkeys. — Bulletin No. 25. Published by Rhode Island Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, Kingston, R. I. 

Tapeworms of Poultry.— Dr. D. E. Salmon, Bulletin No. 12, 
Published by Bureau of Animal Industry, United States 
Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

Wyandottes. — Joseph Wallace. Published by Ferris Publishing: 
Company, Albany, N. Y. 



INDEX 



African geese, 255. 

Air space necessary, 95. 

.Alien blood, introdnction of, 23. 

.\ mount of land required, 6. 

Andalusians. as fai i fowls, 34; descrip- 
tion of, 34. 

Animal and vegetable niti-ogen com- 
pared, 169. 

Animal and vegetable food for chickens, 
•212. 

Animal and vegetable food for young 
ducks. 248. 

Animal meal, 169; how fed. 179. 

Arrangement of houses, 87. 

Artificial iuciibatiou, 189. 

Asiatics, 44. 

Automatic drinking fountains, 218. 

Aylesbury ducks, 242. 

Bantams, description of. 81; varieties 
of, 81. 

Barred Plymouth Rocks, 59 ; laying 
qualities of, 60; useful qualities of, 59. 

Beets, 166. 

Best products most remunerative, 10. 

Black Caj'uga ducks, 244. 

Black turkeys, 269. 

Boiled eggs for little chickens, 213. 

Brahmas, 45; description of, 46; varie- 
ties of, 45. 

Breed useful fowls, 155. 

Breeding and improvement, 131. 

Breeds classified as to utility, 12 ; egg, 
13; fancy, 14, 74; for broilers, 235: 
for capons, 227 ; formed by crossing, 
149 ; general purpose, 14 ; meat, 14, 
39; of geese, 2.52. 



Broiler, description of, 232; rearers as 
specialists, 232; rearing and egg pio- 
duction, 236. 

Broilers, food for, 235 ; profits from 
rearing, 234 ; size of, 233 ; s-kill re- 
quired in producing, 232; time to sell, 
233. 

Bronze turkeys, 267. 

Brooder chicks, attack by diarrhoea, 
221 ; diseased livers in, 221. 

Brooder houses, 199. 

Brooders, 198; care of, 218; essentials 
of, 201 ; home-made. 205 : kinds of, 
198; must be dry, 204; outdoor, 202. 

Brown and White Leghorns compared, 
28. 

Buckwheat, 164. 

Buildings, location of, 82. 

Buff Cochins, ;')0. 

Buff Plymouth Rocks, 61. 

Buff turkeys, 209. 

Buildings, size of, 94. 

Bumble foot, causes of, 324. 

Business of rearing fowls, 1. 

Cabbage, 167. 

Call ducks, 245. 

Canned meat foods, 170. 

Capital required, 3. 

Capon-rearing, 222; profits of, 223. 

Caponizing, good light necessary, 229; 
instruments for, 225; operation 'of, 
226; preparing fowls for, --'28, 231; size 
of fowls for, 228; time for, 230; use of 
reflectors in, 230. 

Capons, breeds for, 227; description of, 
224; preparing for market, 2.)1. 



(335) 



836 



Index 



Care of incubators, 196. 

Care of young turkeys, 272. 

Causes of bumble foot, 324; gapes, 313; 
roup, 316; scaly legs, 323; variation, 
142. 

Cement floors, construction of, 106. 

Characteristics of Cochins, 49; egg 
breeds, 15. 

Chickens, animal food for, 212; death 
of, from suffocation, 221; death of, 
from tuberculosis, 221; diseases of, 
219; drinking fountains for, 217; ex- 
ercise for, 213; feeding, 208; first food 
for, 210; food for, 209; frequency of 
feeding, 211; grit for, 216; ground 
grain for, 211; ha d-boiled eggs for, 
213; little, must be kept dry, 215; 
mineral matter for, 212; number of, 
in the United States, 2. 

Chinese geese, 256. 

Cholera, 320; symptoms of, 320; treat- 
ment for, 321. 

Classes of game fowls, 77. 

Classification of fowls faulty, 12. 

Cleanliness essential in duck-rearing, 
246. 

Clover as a green food, 166. 

Clover hay, as a poultry food, 168; how 
prepared, 168; how fea, 166. 

Cochins, characteristics of, 49. 

Cold storage for eggs, 307. 

Color of yolk, affected by food, 163. 

Common fowls, improvement of, 153. 

Common stock compared to pure-bred 
stock, 151. 

Concrete walls, 97. 

Construction of perches, 113; cement 
floors, 106; fences, 128; hollow side 
walls, 101; houses, 90; solid side walls, 
100; ventilators, 110; wooden floors, 
96. 

Convenience saves labor, 86. 

Corn, as a food for laying hens, 162. 

Cramming, arrangement of coops for, 
185; description of, 183; food for, 
184. 



Cross-breeding, 147; dangers of, 148; 

improvements due to, 148. 
Crows, protection from, 329. 
Cubical contents of house, 95. 

Danger from hawks and crows, 89. 

Danger from vermin, 89. 

Dangers of cross-breeding, 148; forced 
feeding, 161; in-and-in-breeding, 146; 
stampeding, 250. 

Dark Brahmas and Light Brahmas 
compared, 48. 

Description of Andalusians, 33; Ban- 
tams, 81; Brahmas, 46; broilers, 232; 
capons, 224; cramming, 183; Domi- 
niques,67; Dorkings, 67; Faverolles, 
52; Frizzles, 79; Hamburgs, 35; Hou- 
dans, ^70; Javas, 66; Langshans, 51; 
Minorcas, 31; Mites, 312; Polish, 75; 
Red Caps, 38; Rumpless fowls, 80; 
Silkies, 79; Spanish fowls, 34; Sul- 
tans, 79; Water-glass, 305; Wyan- 
dottes, 64. 

Diarrhoea, remedies for, 326. 

Discussion of incubators, 187. 

Diseased livers in brooder chicks, 221. 

Diseases of chickens, 219. 

Diseases and enemies of poultry, 308. 

Disinfect fattening fowls, 186. 

Disinfection of nests, 118. 

Disposition of egg breeds, 16 ; gen- 
eral-purpose fowls, 56; meat breeds, 
40. 

Dominiques, description of, 67. 

Dorkings, description of, 67; useful 
qualities of, 68. 

Dozens of eggs produced on farms, 2. 

Drainage, thorough, 83. 

Drinking fountains, 119. 

Drinking fountains, automatic, 218; for 
little chickens, 217. 

Dry-picking fowls, 286. 

Dry soils for broiler rearing, 235. 

Dry yards for little chickens, 215. 

Duck rearing, cleanliness esse«tial to. 
246. 



Index 



337 



Ducks, Aylesbury, 242; Black Cayuga, 
244 : Call, 245; easily confined, 239; 
free from disease, 238 ; general dis- 
cussion of, 237; green food for, 249; 
grow rapidly, 239 ; Muscovy, 245 ; 
natural food of, 245 ; number of in 
the United States, 2 ; Pekin, 241 ; 
ponds or streams not necessary for, 
239 ; reared mostly for meat, 238 ; 
Rouen, 243; varieties of, 241; water 
troiighs for, 249; young, animal food 
for, 248; j'oung, grain food for, 250. 

Dust baths necessary, 124. 

Dust boxes, 122. 

Easiest to develop one characteristic, 31. 

Easy to market poultry products, 10. 

Egg breeds, 13; characteristics of, 15; 
close feathered, 21 ; disposition of, 
16: early maturing, 17; easily fright- 
ened, 16; good foragers, 20; inclined 
to take exercise, 20; poor sitters, 18; 
sensitive to cold, 21; size of, 15. 

Egg eating, 117, 325. 

Egg production and broiler rearing, 236. 

Egg production and fancy points, 136. 

Egg production and size of fowls, 135. 

Egg production and vigor of fowl, 136. 

Egg production, influenced by males, 
139. 

Eggs, cold storage for, 307; feeding for, 
158; fertility of, 137, 138; fresh, 138; 
marketing fresh, 300 ; methods of 
preserving, 303 ; preserving, 302; pre- 
serving in lime water, 307; produced 
on farms, 2; selection of for hatch- 
ing, 133 ; shipping cases for, 301 ; 
sorting, 299. 

Enibden geese, 254. 

Enemies and diseases of poultry, 308. 

English methods of killing, 292. 

Essentials of a brooder, 201. 

Essentials of houses, 90. 

Exercise for little chickens, 213 ; im- 
portance of, 159; required, 6. 

Exhibition games, 77. 



Failures due to inexperience, 5. 

Fancy breeds, 14, 74; description of, 74. 

Fancy points and egg prodxiction, 136. 

Fattening, 181 ; cockerels, 183 ; foods 
for, 182. 

Fattening fowls require little exer- 
cise, 181. 

Fattening fowls should be disinfected, 
186. 

Fattening geese, 257. 

Faulty classification of fowls, 12. 

Faulty method of selecting eggs, 134. 

Faverolles, description of, 52. 

Feather eating, 325. 

Feeding for eggs and for meat, 158; for 
meat, 181 ; in litter, 180 ; little 
chickens, 208 ; manner of, 174 ; 
troughs, 179 ; troughs for little 
chickens, 215. 

Fences, construction of, 128. 

Fertile eggs, 137. 

Fertility of eggs, 138. 

First food for little chickens, 210. 

Flavor of eggs affected ty food, 160. 

Flocks, size of, 5. 

Floor space necessary, 94. 

Floors, 105. 

Food a basis of improvement, 152; af- 
fects flavor of eggs, 160; deficient in 
lime, 172: for broilers, 235; for cram- 
ming, 184; for fattening, 182; for gos- 
lings, 257; for little chickens, 209; for 
pigeons, 281; for young turkeys, 271; 
green, 165; natural, 158; the cause of 
improvement, 174. 

Foods, meat, 168; soft, 176. 

Forced feeding, dangers of, 161. 

Forced feeding for eggs, 160. 

Form of house, 91; roof, 103; yard, 127. 

Forming machine, 294; method of us- 
ing. 295. 

Foundation of house, 96. 

Fowls, breeding and improvement of, 
131: classification of, 12; dry-picking, 
286; general-purpose, .54; guinea. 274; 
health of, 82; improvement of, 31; 



338 



Index 



killing, 285; Mediteix-aneaii,18; pack- 
ing and shipping, 289; plumping, 288; 
preparing for market, 282; require 
exercise, 6; scalding, 287; selection 
of, 131. 

Fresh eggs, 138. 

Frizzles, description of, 79. 

Frozen parts, treatment for, 324. 

Frozen poultry, 291. 

Fruit trees for yard, 129. 

Gable roof, 103. 

Game, classes of, 77. 

Games, exhibition, 77; oriental, 78; 
pit, 77. 

Gapes, causes of, 313; remedies for, 31+. 

Geese, African, 255; breeds of, 2j2; 
Chinese, 256; Embden, 254; fattening, 
257; general discussion, 250; houses 
for, 259; incubation of, 260; laying 
qualities of, 259; number of, 2; suit- 
able runs for, 251; Toulouse, 252. 

General discussion of ducks, 237; of 
geese, 250. 

General -purpose breeds, 14; fowls, 54; 
are good foragers, 58; are good sit- 
ters, 57; disposition of, 56; early ma- 
turing, 57; endure cold weather, 58; 
size of, 56; useful qualities of, 55. 

Good products may be sent long dis- 
tances, 10. 

Goslings, food for, 257. 

Grain, how fed, 180. 

Grains, mixture of, 178. 

Green food for young ducks, 249. 

Green food, general discussion of, 165. 

Grit for little chickens, 216; various 
kinds of, 170. 

Ground grain for little chicks, 211. 

Guinea fowls, 274; nature of, 275; 
habits of, 275. 

Habits of pea-fowls, 277. 

Hamburgs, description of, 35; varieties 

of, 36. 
Hawks and crows, danger from, 89. 



Health of fowls, 82. 

Heat radiated by windows, 107. 

Heredity, law of, 140. 

Histoi-y of Leghorns, 23. 

Hollow side walls, construction of, 101; 
material for, 102. 

Home-made brooders, 205. 

Houdans, description of, 70. 

House, cubical content of, 95; form of, 
91; foundation for, 96. 

Houses, arrangement of, 87; construc- 
tion of, 90; essentials of, 90; for geese, 
259; portable, 130. 

Importance of exercise, 159; in-and-in- 
breeding, 145; sunshine, 85. 

Improvement and breeding, 131 ; of com- 
mon fowls, 153; through selection, 
■j.57; of fowls, 31; due to cross-breed- 
ing, 148. 

Incubation, artificial, 189 ; of geese, 260; 
natural, 190. 

Incubator house, 196. 

Incubator room, even temperature de- 
sirable, 196. 

Incubator rooms, 194; ventilation of, 
196. 

Incubators, 191; care of, 196; discussion 
of, 187. 

In-and-in-breeding, dangers of, 146 ; de- 
fined, 144; importance of, 145. 

Inexperience, cause of failures, 5. 

Influence of male and female com- 
pared, 153. 

Influence of males on egg production, 
139. 

Indian games, 70. 

Instruments for caponizing, 225. 

Introduction of alien blood in Leg- 
horns, 23. 

Javas, description of, 66; useful quali- 
ties of, 66; varieties of, 66. 

Killins fowls, 285; English method of, 
292. 



Index 



339 



Kinds of litter, 180. 

Knowledge of the business essential, 4. 

Laboi" caused by inconvenience, 86. 

Land, amount of requii-ed, 5. 

Langshans, description of, 51. 

Large eggs pi-ef erred, 28. 

Law of hei-edity, 140. 

Law of variation, 141. 

Laying qualities of Barred Plymoiith 

Rocks, 60; of geese, 259; of meat 

breeds, 42. 
Leghorn eggs, color of, 28. 
Leghorns, description of, 23; egg pro- 
duction of, 26; size of, 25; varieties 

of, 26. 
Lice, 308; description of, 309; remedies 

for, 310. 
Liglit Brahmas and Dark Brahmas 

compared, 48. 
Lime, neeessai"y, 1"2. 
Lime water for preserving eggs, 307. 
Linseed meal, 165; for moulting hens, 

105. 
Litter, kinds of, ISO. 
Live poultry, crates for shipping, 298; 

shipping, 297. 
Location of buildings, 82; yards, 86. 

Machine, forming, 294. 

Male and female, comparative influence 
of, 153. 

Males and egg production, 139. 

Mangel- wurzels, 166. 

Manner of feeding, 174. 

Marketing fresh eggs, 300. 

Marking packages, 291. 

Material for dust baths, 123 ; hollow 
side walls, 102; for nests, 119; for side 
walls, 92. 

Meat breeds, 14, 39; are poor foragers, 
41; as lawn fowls, 41; as winter lay- 
ers, 43; disposition of, 40; easily con- 
fined, 41; late maturing, 44; laying 
qualities of, 42; size of, 39. 

Meat, feeding for, 181. 



Meat foods, 168; canned, 170. 

Mediterranean fowls, 18, 22. 

Method of preserving eggs, 303. 

Milk for little chickens, 210. 

Mineral matter for little chickens, 212. 

Minorcas, description of, 31. 

Mites, description of, 312 ; remedies 

for, 313. 
Money invested yields quick returns, 7. 
Moulting and egg production, 135. 
Muscovy ducks, 245. 

Narragansett turkeys, 268. 

Natural food of ducks, 245; of fowls, 158. 

Natural incubation, 190. 

Necessary air space per fowl, 95. 

Nest material, 119. 

Nests, disinfection of, 118; for turkeys, 
271; requisites of, 115; size of, 118. 

Number of chickens in the United 
States, 2; ducks in the United States, 
2; geese in the United States. 2; tur- 
keys in the United States, 2. 

Oats, as a food, 165 ; produces light- 
colored flesh, 105. 
Opei-ation of caponizing, 226. 
Oriental Games, 78. 

Origin of Barred Plymouth Rocks, 59. 
Outdoor brooders, 202. 

Packages, marking, 291. 

Packing and shipping fowls, 289; poul- 
try in ice, 290. 

Parks and yards, 124. 

Pate de foie gras, 258. 

Pea-comb, 45. 

Pea-fowls, 270; habits of, 277. 

Pekin ducks, 241. 

Pepper, 174. 

Perches, construction of, 113; situation 
of, 112. 

Pigeons, 277; food for. 281; profit from 
rearing, 278 

Pit Games. 77. 

Plumping fowls. 288. 



340 



Index 



Plum trees for the poultry yard, 128. 

Plums, varieties of, 129. 

Poisoning from salt, 327. 

Poisoning rats, 328. 

Polish, description of, 75 ; fowls not 
hardy, 76 ; varieties of, 76. 

Portable houses, 130. 

Poultry business suited to either sex, 8 ; 
cases for shipping, 289; diseases and 
enemies of, 308; frozen, 291; in apple 
orchards, 129; packing in ice for ship- 
ment, 290; raising as a business, 1; 
shipping alive, 297; statistics unre- 
liable, 2; time to ship, 292; value of, 2. 

Preparation of fowls for caponizing, 
228. 

Preparing capons for market, 231 ; 
fowls for market, 282. 

Preserving eggs, 302. 

Production of pate de foie gras, 258. 

Products easy to market, 10; variety 
of, 9. 

Profit in feeding, 175. 

Prolits from rearing broilers, 234; from 
rearing pigeons, 278; capon rearing, 
223. 

Protected water basins, 121. 

Pure air necessary, 195. 

Pure-bred stock, advantages due to, 
150; compared to common stock, 151. 

Quality of food, 160. 

Quick returns from mouey invested, 7. 

Raised elevation preferred, 84. 

Raising poultry as a business, 1. 

Rape as a green food, 168; preparation 

of, 168. 
Rats, poisoning, 328. 
Rearing capons, 222; squabs, 279. 
Red Caps, description of, 38. 
Remedies for diarrhoea, 326; for gapes, 

314; for lice, 310; for mites, 313. 
Requisites for success, 4; of a good 

nest, 115. 
Rhode Island Reds, 72. 



Roof, gable, 103; impervious to wind, 
105; shed, 104; form of, 103. 

Rooms for incubators, 194. 

Root-cutters, 167. 

Rouen ducks, 243. 

Roup, causes of, 316; symptoms of, 316; 
treatment for, 317. 

Rumpless fowls, described, 80. 

Runs, suitable for geese, 251. 

Salt, beneficial, 172; poisoning, 327; 
poisonovis, 173. 

Scalding fowls, 287. 

Scaly legs, cause of, 323; treatment for, 
323. 

Selecting eggs, 133; turkeys for breed- 
ing, 269. 

Selection and improvement, 157. 

Selection of an incubator, 191; of fowls, 
131. 

Separate the sexes in fattening pens, 
183. 

Shallow pans as drinking fountains, 
121. 

Shed roof, 104. 

Shipping cases for eggs, 301 ; dressed 
fowls, 289; live poultry, 297. 

Shutters, window, 108. 

Side walls, material for, 92; solid, 99; 
wooden, 98. 

Silkies, description of, 79. 

Site, should be raised, 84. 

Situation of perches, 112; of windows, 
107; of yards, 127. 

Size of fowls and egg production, 135; 
of broilers, 233 ; of building, 94 ; of 
egg breeds, 15; of flocks, 5; of fowls 
for caponizing, 228 ; of general-pur- 
pose fowls, 56 ; of Leghorns, 25 ; of 
meat breeds, 39 ; of squabs, 280 ; of 
yards, 126. 

Skim milk, 170. 

Slate turkeys, 269. 

Soft foods, 176; most profitable, 176. 

Solid side walls, 99 ; construction of, 
100. 



Index 



341 



Sorting eggs, 299. 

Sour milk for little chickens, 210. 

Spanish as farm fowls, 35; description 

of, 34. 
SQuabs, rearing of, 279 ; size of, 280 ; 

varieties of pigeons for, 280. 
Stampeding, dangers of, 250. 
Statistics, unreliable, 2. 
Stock, pure bred, 150. 
Sulfur, 174. 

Sultans, description of, 79. 
Sunshine important, 85. 
Superior products create new demands, 

10. 
Symptoms of cholera, 320; of roup, 31G. 
Syugamus trachealis, 313. 



Value of eggs produced on farms in tho 
United States, 3; poultry in the United 
States, 2. 

Variation, causes of, 142; law of, 141. 

Varieties of Bantams, 81; Brahmas. 
45; Hamburgs, 36; Javas, 66; Leg- 
horns, 26; plums recommended, 129; 
Polish, 76; turkeys, 267; wild turkeys, 
266; Wyandottes, 65; products, 9. 

Vegetable and animal nitrogen com- 
pared, 169. 

Ventilation, 109. 

Ventilators, construction of, 110. 

Vermin, danger from, 89. 

Vigor and egg production, 136. 

Vigorous fowls, most profitable, 175. 



Thorough drainage necessary, 83. 

Time to caponize, 230; to sell broilers, 
233. 

Toulouse geese, 252. 

Treatmentforcholera, 321. 

Treatment for frozen parts, 324; roup, 
317; scaly legs, 323. 

Troughs, feeding, 179; for little chick- 
ens, 215. 

Tuberculosis in brooder chicks, 221. 

Turkeys, 261; Black, 269; Bronze, 267; 
Buff, 269; care of young, 272; food 
for young, 271; Narragansett, 268; 
nests for, 271; number of in the 
United States, 2; selecting for breed- 
ing, 269; slate, 209; varieties of, 267; 
White Holland, 268; wild, 261. 



Useful fowls, 155. 

Useful qualities of Barred Plymouth 
Rocks, 59; Dorkings, 68; general-pur- 
pose fowls, 55; Indian games, 72; 
Javas, 66; Rhode Island Reds, 72. 

Utility as a basis of classification. 12. 



Walls, concrete, 97; side, material for, 
92; side, wooden, 98. 

Water basins, 121. 

Water-glass, 305. 

Water troughs for ducks, 249. 

Weight of wild turkeys, 263. 

Wheat as a poultry food, 164. 

White and brown Leghorns compared, 
28; white fowls preferred, 63; Holland 
turkeys, 268; Plymouth Rocks, 61. 

Wild turkeys, 261; crosses of, 263; varie- 
ties of, 266; weight of, 203. 

Window shutters, 108. 

Windows, 106; radiate heat, 107; situa- 
tion of, 107. 

Winter layers, 22. 

Wooden floors, 105; construction of, 96. 

Wyandottes, description of, 64; varie- 
ties of, 65. 

Yards and parks, 12t; forms of, 127; 

location of, 86; situation of, 127; size 

of, 126. 
Yolk, color of, affected by food, 163. 
Young ducks, grain food for, 250. 



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